Part 6 Sense Relations6.1 Sense Relations6.2 Hyponymy6.3 Synonymy6.4 Antonymy6.5 Homonymy English lexicology (III)26.1 Sense RelationsWhat are sense relations(语义关系语义关系)?)?Words are arbitrary symbols and are independent identities so far as heir outer facet-spelling and pronunciation, is concerned. But semantically, all words are related in one way or another, hence sense relations. In light of sense relations, words can be classified semantically.English lexicology (III)36.1 Sense RelationsTypes of sense relationsHyponymy(上下义关系上下义关系)-semantic inclusionSynonymy(同义关系同义关系)-semantic similarityAntonymy(反义关系反义关系)-semantic oppositionHomonymy(同形或同音异义关系同形或同音异义关系)English lexicology (III)46.2 HyponymyThe definition of hyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items).The general lexical item is called the superordinate(上义词上义词).The specific words are known as hyponyms(下义词下义词).English lexicology (III)56.2 Hyponymyliteratureprosefictiondramashort storynovelettenovelpoetryEnglish lexicology (III)66.2 Hyponymyswimmingboxingrunning racewrestlingweight-liftinghurdle racerunningrelaysprintinglong-distance racegymnasticsathleticsball gamessportsEnglish lexicology (III)76.2 HyponymyThe semantic field theory(语义场理论语义场理论) )The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas or fields, the members of which are joined together by some common semantic component. The whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields. Words in each field are semantically related and define one another. Vocabulary is seen as an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense. -Jost Trier (a German linguist)English lexicology (III)86.2 HyponymyThe semantic field theoryMost languages share same semantic fields.TimeSpaceAgeKinshipFoodColorEmotion English lexicology (III)96.2 HyponymyThe semantic field theoryThe semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different languages, thus lexical gaps(词词汇空缺汇空缺) occur.English lexicology (III)106.2 HyponymyThe semantic field theoryThe semantic field of kinshipMembers in English: 13-father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece, cousin, husband, wife.Members in Chinese: .The semantic field of foodhot dog, sandwich, hamburger 豆腐豆腐, 馒头馒头English lexicology (III)116.2 HyponymyThe semantic field theoryemotionjoylovehatefeargriefEnglish lexicology (III)126.2 HyponymyImplications of semantic field for vocabulary learningcharacter/ virtueeasy-going, aggressive, arrogant, self-conceited, modest,considerate, sympathetic, extrovert, introvert,amicable, Ambitious, honest, loyal, obedient, strong-willed, Iron-willed, trustworthy, obstinate,stubborn, unyielding, confidentEnglish lexicology (III)136.3 SynonymyTypes of synonymsAbsolute or perfect synonyms: words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, I.e. both in grammatical and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meaning. Such synonyms are rare in natural languages.compounding and composition;word building and word-formation; malnutrition and undernourishmentEnglish lexicology (III)146.3 SynonymyTypes of synonymsRelative or partial synonyms: words which are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degree of a given quality. It is this type of synonyms we shall deal with here.English lexicology (III)156.3 SynonymySources of synonymsBorrowing Native Borrowed roomchamberfoe enemy help aidleave departbodilycorporal English lexicology (III)166.3 SynonymySources of synonymsBorrowing Native FrenchLatintimeageepochbellystomachabdomenfireflameconflagrationaskquestioninterrogateEnglish lexicology (III)176.3 SynonymySources of synonymsDialects and regional Englishliftelevatortubesubwaypetrolgasolinecall boxtelephone boothcharmglamour (ScotE)English lexicology (III)186.3 SynonymySources of synonymsFigurative and euphemistic of wordsoccupationwalk of lifedreamerstar-gazerdrunkelevatedliedistort the factEnglish lexicology (III)196.3 SynonymySources of synonymsCoincidence with idiomatic expressionspick upchoosegive upabandongo on with continueput offpostponewingain the upper handhesitatebe in two mindsEnglish lexicology (III)206.3 SynonymySemantically synonymous field(同义同义语义场语义场) )Base on semantic similarity, synonyms are usually arranged into synonymic groups or sets. Within this groups there is the most general term known as “synonymic dominant”(主导同义词主导同义词). The synonymic dominant is the common denotational component that brings two or more words together into a synonymic group(同义词群同义词群), which can be called a semantically synonymous field.English lexicology (III)216.3 SynonymySemantically synonymous fieldsynonymic dominantsynonymic groupLeavedepart, quit, retire, withdraw, exitLookstare, gaze, eye, peep, glancePicturepainting, photo, drawingEnglish lexicology (III)226.3 SynonymyImplications of Semantically synonymous fieldGeneral-specificSay/speak: murmur, scream, retort, argue, protest, claim, state, declareMonotony-vividnessWe have but one aim and one single, irrevocable purpose. We are resolved to destroy Hitler and every vestige of the Nazi regime. From this nothing will turn us, nothing. We will never parley, we will never negotiate with Hitler or any of his gangs. -Winston ChurchillBarbie dolls fashion: fashions, costumes, outfits, apparel, dress.English lexicology (III)236.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsDifference in denotation -look: stare, gaze, eye, peep, glance -laugh: chortle, chuckle, giggle, guffaw, snicker/snigger, titter -extend, increase, expand -make ones way: thread ones way, dig ones way, break ones way, push ones way, shoulder ones way, elbow ones way, worm ones wayEnglish lexicology (III)246.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsDifference in denotation -let, allow, permit -want, wish, desire -rich, wealthy -big, large, hugeEnglish lexicology (III)256.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsDifference in denotation -chilly, frigid, icy, cold, frosty, coolCool-chilly-cold-frosty-frigid-icyEnglish lexicology (III)266.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsDifference in connotationDiffer in emotional coloringDiffer in stylistic coloringEnglish lexicology (III)276.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsDifference in collocation-empty (box, street, room), vacant (seat, chair, apartment), blank (check, a blank sheet of paper)-a large (not big) amount/number/quantity of-great courage/confidence/wisdom-make efforts, take measuresEnglish lexicology (III)286.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsDifference in collocation-accuse.of, chargewith, rebukefor, reproachwith/for-a lump of sugar, a sheet of paper, a slice of meat/bread, a cake of soap, a chunk of wood-a flock of sheep/goats/birds, a herb of cows/elephants/zebras/antelopes, a school of fish/whales/dolphins, a swarm of ants/bees/wasps/locusts, a stable of horses, a pride of lionsEnglish lexicology (III)296.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsDifference in distribution Pre-modifier VS post-modifier-He is the greatest living novelist in England.-He is the greatest novelist alive in England.-Dont disturb the sleeping old man.-Dont disturb the old man asleep. English lexicology (III)306.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsThe losing team was from further competition.Firefighters a big fire.The meeting has been because of the flu.The government the tax on alcohol.abolish, cancel, extinguish, eliminateextinguishedeliminatedcancelledabolishedEnglish lexicology (III)316.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsShe made an of ideas she wanted to present in her talk.I have read the of his book.The chemistry book had a at the end of each chapter.abstract, outline, summaryoutlineabstractsummaryEnglish lexicology (III)326.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsIt is to judge a foreign culture only by its food.There was an idea that the earth was flat and motionless.You were very to trust him.absurd, ridiculous, sillyridiculousabsurdsillyEnglish lexicology (III)336.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsReading the mind only with materials of knowledge, it is thinking that makes what we read ours.This hotel can up to 500 guests.We cant that expensive sports car.The company the customers wish and sent the delivery overnight.The tall building a beautiful view of the ocean.accommodate, afford, furnishfurnishesaccommodateaffordaccommodatedaffordsEnglish lexicology (III)346.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsThe boss him strongly for his negligenceThe police him of theft.The police him with murder.accuse, charge, rebukerebukedaccusedchargedEnglish lexicology (III)356.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsAn lack of food brought hunger to the Iraqi people.It is that you study hard for the exam or you will fail it.Improved consumer confidence is to an economic recovery.We have an need for help; we are running out of water.acute, critical, crucial, urgentacutecriticalcrucialurgentEnglish lexicology (III)366.3 SynonymyDiscrimination of synonymsIt is whether the economy will get better.His changes of recovery from illness are .He has some ideas about what to do, but nothing specific.His directions confused us; we did not know which of the two roads to take.The poetry of Ezra Pound is sometimes difficult to understand because it contains so many - - - references. ambiguous, obscure, vague, unclear, dimuncleardimvagueambiguousobscureEnglish lexicology (III)376.4 AntonymyThe definition of antonymyAntonymy is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. They are a variety of “oppositeness”. They can be classified into three major groups.English lexicology (III)386.4 AntonymyTypes of antonymsContrariesComplementariesConversives Semantic incompatibles English lexicology (III)396.4 AntonymyContraries(相对反义词相对反义词/ /两极反义词两极反义词) )Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes. The two opposites are gradable.hot, warm, cool, coldbeautiful, pretty, good-looking, plain, uglyold-young, open-close, big-small, poor-richEnglish lexicology (III)406.4 AntonymyComplementaries(绝对反义词绝对反义词/ /互补反互补反义词义词) )These antonyms truly represent oppositeness. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them (non-gradable).dead-alive, present-absent, male-female, true-false, approval-disapproval, capable-incapablePrefixes: dis-, in-, il-, ir-, im-, un-English lexicology (III)416.4 AntonymyConversives(换位反义词换位反义词/ /关系反义词关系反义词) )This third type consists of relational opposites.Husband-wife, fianc-fiance, employer-employee, debtor-creditorAbove-below, in front of-behind, up-downBuy-sell, give-receive, go-come, gain-loseEnglish lexicology (III)426.4 AntonymySemantic incompatibles(多项不相容词多项不相容词) )North, south, east, westSpring, summer, autumn, winterJanuary, February, March,DecemberSunday, Monday, .SaturdayEnglish lexicology (III)436.4 AntonymyA word can have more than one antonymsFresh bread-stale breadFresh air-stuffy airFresh flowers-faded flowersFresh look-tired lookEnglish lexicology (III)446.4 AntonymyStylistic purpose of the use of antonymsTo achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together, to express economically the opposite of a particular thought.English lexicology (III)456.4 AntonymyStylistic purpose of the use of antonymsUnited we stand, divided we fall.Hope for the best and prepare for the worst.Visible darkness, a victorious defeat, a clever fool, an open secret, painful pleasure, cruel kindness.English lexicology (III)466.4 AntonymyStylistic purpose of the use of antonymsIt was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the era of incredulity; it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness; it was the Spring of Hope, it was the Winter of Despair; we had everything before us, we had nothing before us; we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way. (Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities)6.5 Homonymy - Homonymy: thestateorqualityofthestateorqualityofagivenwordagivenwordshavingthesamespellingandshavingthesamespellingandthesamesoundorpronunciationasanotherthesamesoundorpronunciationasanotherword,butwithadifferentmeaning.word,butwithadifferentmeaning. - Homonym: words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling 同同形（同音）异义词形（同音）异义词 - The words which are in the relationship of homonymy are homonyms.(1) Types of homonyms Perfecthomonymserfecthomonyms Homographomographs Homophoneomophones Perfect homonyms(同形同音）同形同音）bear n. 熊（熊（large furry animal）from Old English berabear v. 忍受（忍受（tolerate）from Old English beran lie vi. 位于（位于（be located somewhere）from Old English licganlie vi. 说谎（说谎（deliberately say something untrue）from Old English lygemeet vt. 遇到（遇到（come across somebody）from Old English metanmeet adj. 合适的（合适的（appropriate）from Old English gemaetetack n. 钉子（钉子（small nail）14th century. From Old Northern French taguetack n. 马鞍和马勒（马鞍和马勒（saddles and bridles）late 18th century. Shortening of tackletack n. 劣质的东西（劣质的东西（something inferior）late 20th century. Back-formation from tackytack n. 食物（食物（poor fare）late 16th century. Origin unknownHomographs refuse v. 拒绝（拒绝（indicate unwillingness）refuse n. 垃圾（垃圾（garbage）sow v. 播种（播种（plant seed）sow n. 母猪（母猪（female hog）tear n. 眼泪（眼泪（single drop of fluid from the eye）tear v. 撕裂（撕裂（pull or come apart）prayer n.祈祷（祈祷（communication with God or other being）prayer n.祈祷者（祈祷者（one who prays） sewer n. 下水道（下水道（drain for water）sewer n. 中世纪佣仆（中世纪佣仆（medieval servant）sewer n. 裁缝（裁缝（one who sews）Homophones deardearn.alovedpersonn.alovedperson deerdeern.akindofanimaln.akindofanimal aero adj. of aircraft arrowarrow n. slender,pointedshaftslender,pointedshaft airairn. stuffwebreathestuffwebreathe heirheirn. onewhowillinheritonewhowillinherit altaraltarn. raisedcenterofworshipraisedcenterofworship alteralterv. tochangetochange baronbaronn. minorroyaltyminorroyalty barrenbarrenadj. unabletobearchildrenunabletobearchildren (2) Origins of homonymschangeinsoundandspellingchangeinsoundandspelling Some homonyms are native by origin, derived from different earlier forms in Old English. The change in sound and spelling gradually made them identical in modern English.borrowingborrowing As a result of heavy borrowing from other languages, many words of foreign origin coincide in sound and/or spelling with those of native origin or with those of other foreign origin.shorteningshortening ManyshortenedformsofwordshappentobeManyshortenedformsofwordshappentobeidenticalwithotherwordsinspellingorsoundidenticalwithotherwordsinspellingorsound.(3) Differentiation of homonyms and polysemants perfect homonymsPolysemants（多义词）（多义词）Similarityspelling and soundDifferencesfundamentaldifferent lexemesthe same formthe same lexemedistinguishable meaning source etymologydesendants of different sourcesa words of the same sourcessemantic relatednesshave nothing to do with one anotherrelated,can be traced back to one central meaningin dictionarieslisted as sepatated entrieslisted under one headwordthe same formthe same formPolysemantsPerfect Homonyms Lexeme: A lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of words that are different forms of the same word. For example, the English word forms run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme. 4. Rhetoric Features of HomonymsAs homonyms are considered in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to created puns for desired effect of, say, humour, sarcasm or ridicule.- Mine is a long and sad tale! said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and sighing.- It is a long tail, certainly, said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mouses tail; but why do you call it sad?(Lewis Carroll, Alices Adventures in Wonderland)Examples:William Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet- Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles (souls) ; I have a soul（sole）of lead so stakes me to the ground. I cannot move. Notes： nimble（quick, and neat in movement ） sole （the underside of the foot ） stake（to tie, fasten, or tether with or to a stake译一：我实在不能跳了，译一：我实在不能跳了，你们都有轻快的舞鞋。你们都有轻快的舞鞋。我只有一个像铅一样重的灵魂，我只有一个像铅一样重的灵魂，把我的身体紧紧的钉在地上，使我不能动弹。把我的身体紧紧的钉在地上，使我不能动弹。译二：我实在不能跳了，译二：我实在不能跳了，你们都有轻快的舞鞋。你们都有轻快的舞鞋。我只有一个像铅一样重的舞鞋。我只有一个像铅一样重的舞鞋。译三：我实在不能跳了，译三：我实在不能跳了，你们都有舞鞋，且心情轻松你们都有舞鞋，且心情轻松我虽有舞鞋，但心情沉重。我虽有舞鞋，但心情沉重。