集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 An Introduction to Linguistics An Introduction to Linguistics1 1An Introduction to Linguistics_By Helen. HBy Helen. H2004.102004.102 2集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Course DescriptionThe Aims of the Course Are:The Aims of the Course Are:1. To help you to have a better understanding of the nature and features of 1. To help you to have a better understanding of the nature and features of language and linguistic studies;language and linguistic studies;2. To help you to have a better understanding of the notions, principles and 2. To help you to have a better understanding of the notions, principles and approaches in linguistic studies;approaches in linguistic studies;3. To enable you to understand the relations between language and other 3. To enable you to understand the relations between language and other relevant factors such as society, culture and thought:relevant factors such as society, culture and thought:4. To enable you to do your own research in linguistic studies4. To enable you to do your own research in linguistic studies. .II. The Content of the CourseII. The Content of the CourseAccording the aims of the course, the following topics will be included in According the aims of the course, the following topics will be included in the course: the course: 1. Language and Linguistics1. Language and Linguistics2. speech sounds2. speech sounds3. lexicon3. lexicon4. from word to text 4. from word to text 3 3集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。CourseDescription5. meaning5. meaning6. language and cognition6. language and cognition7. language, culture and soceity7. language, culture and soceity8. language in use8. language in use语言学论坛：语言学论坛：http:/www.lforums.com/http:/www.lforums.com/ 语音学光标：语音学光标：http:/ccl.pku.edu.cn/doubtfire/http:/ccl.pku.edu.cn/doubtfire/ 山东语言学网：山东语言学网：http:/www.yyxx.sdu.edu.cn/http:/www.yyxx.sdu.edu.cn/ 语言学学术网站：语言学学术网站：http:/www.languagera.org/http:/www.languagera.org/ 语言学网站精选：语言学网站精选：http:/www.shisu.edu.cn/magpaper/wgyn/yu.htmhttp:/www.shisu.edu.cn/magpaper/wgyn/yu.htm 中国教育和科研计算机网：中国教育和科研计算机网：http:/www.edu.cn/HomePage/jiao_yu_zi_yuan/list.php?listid=2156http:/www.edu.cn/HomePage/jiao_yu_zi_yuan/list.php?listid=2156 语言学博克：语言学博克：http:/language.blogchina.com/http:/language.blogchina.com/4 4集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。ReferenceBooks戴炜栋，何兆熊，戴炜栋，何兆熊，戴炜栋，何兆熊，戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)(2002)，新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社，新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社，新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社，新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社胡壮麟，胡壮麟，胡壮麟，胡壮麟，(2001)(2001)，语言学教程，北京大学出版社，语言学教程，北京大学出版社，语言学教程，北京大学出版社，语言学教程，北京大学出版社刘润清，刘润清，刘润清，刘润清，(1995)(1995)，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社Aronoff,M.et.al.Aronoff,M.et.al.The Handbook of Linguistics The Handbook of Linguistics 外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，20012001Beaugrande,R.D.Beaugrande,R.D.Linguistic Theory: The Discourse of Fundamental Works. Linguistic Theory: The Discourse of Fundamental Works. 外语教外语教外语教外语教学与研究出版社，学与研究出版社，学与研究出版社，学与研究出版社，20012001Bloomfield,L.Bloomfield,L.Language. Language. 外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，20012001Bolinger,Dwight.Bolinger,Dwight.LanguageThe Loaded Weapon: The Use and Abuse of Language LanguageThe Loaded Weapon: The Use and Abuse of Language Today. Today. London:Longman,1980.London:Longman,1980.Chomsky,Noam.Chomsky,Noam.Language and Mind Language and Mind .Enlargeded.NewYork:HarcourtBrace.Enlargeded.NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1972.Jovanovich,1972.Chomsky,Noam.Chomsky,Noam.Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin, and Use Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin, and Use .NewYork.NewYorkandLondon:Praeger,1986andLondon:Praeger,1986Poole,S.Poole,S.An Introduction to Linguistics. An Introduction to Linguistics. 外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，20002000Radford,A.et.el.Radford,A.et.el.Linguistics: An Introduction Linguistics: An Introduction . .外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，20012001Robins,R.H.Robins,R.H.General Linguistics Fourth edition. General Linguistics Fourth edition. 外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，20002000Sassure,F.D.Sassure,F.D.Course in General Linguistics. Course in General Linguistics. 外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，20012001Spair,E.Spair,E.Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. 外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社， 20012001Yule,G.Yule,G. The Study of Language Second edition. The Study of Language Second edition. 外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，外语教学与研究出版社，20022002 5 5集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。6 6集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter 1. Linguistics7 7集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.1 Whats Linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language.1.1.2 Aims of linguistic theory:According to Chomsky (2001), linguists try to answer the following three questions:8 8集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1) 1) WhatWhat is the knowledge of language? is the knowledge of language? (competence) (competence)2) 2) HowHow is the knowledge of language acquired? is the knowledge of language acquired? (acquisition) (acquisition)3) 3) HowHow is the knowledge of language put to use? is the knowledge of language put to use? (performance/language processing) (performance/language processing)9 9集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Grammar as representation of linguistic knowledgeH.G. Widdowson(1996):H.G. Widdowson(1996):Human language is characterized as rule-government Human language is characterized as rule-government creativity. Speakers of a language possess a mental creativity. Speakers of a language possess a mental system of elements and rules that allows them to form system of elements and rules that allows them to form and interpret familiar and novel utterances/sentences. and interpret familiar and novel utterances/sentences. This system is called grammar, which governs the This system is called grammar, which governs the articulation, perception, and patterning of speech sounds, articulation, perception, and patterning of speech sounds, the formation of words and sentences and the the formation of words and sentences and the interpretation of utterances. The existence of such interpretation of utterances. The existence of such linguistic systems in humans is the product of anatomical linguistic systems in humans is the product of anatomical and cognitive specialization. Hence, linguistics is a and cognitive specialization. Hence, linguistics is a cognitive science.cognitive science.1010集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。The Logical Problem of Language AcquisitionHow comes it that human beings, whose contacts with the world are brief and personal and limited, are nevertheless able to know as much as we do know? And if not, what must we know otherwise than through the senses? Bertrand Russell(1872-1970)1111集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。The Innateness HypothesisNoam Chomsky:Noam Chomsky:What we know about our language is not in fact What we know about our language is not in fact learned form the input, but is rather part of an innate learned form the input, but is rather part of an innate endowment, which is called Universal Grammar endowment, which is called Universal Grammar (UG). (UG). But, look at the example:But, look at the example:Is that your car?Is that your car?Hows he?Hows he?- a couple of pills will cure him.- a couple of pills will cure him.1212集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.1.3 the scope of linguistics1.1.3 the scope of linguistics1.1.3.1 main branches of linguistics :1.1.3.1 main branches of linguistics :phoneticsphonetics: the study of speech sounds;: the study of speech sounds;PhonologyPhonology: the study of sound system and the : the study of sound system and the organizations;organizations;MorphologyMorphology: the study of the internal structure of : the study of the internal structure of words; the rules of word formation;words; the rules of word formation;SyntaxSyntax: the study of the rules of sentence formation;: the study of the rules of sentence formation;SemanticSemantic: examine how meaning is encoded in a : examine how meaning is encoded in a language; study the system of meanings;language; study the system of meanings;PragmaticPragmatic: the study of meaning in context: the study of meaning in context; ;1313集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 Linguistics Chapter 1 Linguistics1.1.3.2 macro-linguistics1.1.3.2 macro-linguisticspsycholinguisticspsycholinguistics: the study of the relation between : the study of the relation between psychology and linguistics;psychology and linguistics;sociolinguisticssociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of : the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society;language and its relation with society;applied linguisticsapplied linguistics: application of linguistic principles : application of linguistic principles and theories to solve the practical problems; and theories to solve the practical problems; linguistics and language teaching linguistics and language teaching Stylistics:Stylistics: linguistic and literature linguistic and literature cognitive linguisticscognitive linguistics; ; computational linguistics; computational linguistics; (e.g. machine translation)(e.g. machine translation)NeurolinguisticsNeurolinguistics1414集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1515集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.1.3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.1.3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics 1.1.3.1prescriptivevs.descriptive1.1.3.1prescriptivevs.descriptiveprescriptiveprescriptive:setrulesofcorrectnessforlearnerstofollow,:setrulesofcorrectnessforlearnerstofollow,prescribingwhatoughttobesaidorhowthingsoughttobe;prescribingwhatoughttobesaidorhowthingsoughttobe;descriptivedescriptive:describeandanalyzewhatpeopleactuallyuse;:describeandanalyzewhatpeopleactuallyuse;Discussion:Discussion:Do/dontsaylikethis.-howthingsshouldbe.Do/dontsaylikethis.-howthingsshouldbe.Peopledo/dontsaylikethis.-howthingsare.Peopledo/dontsaylikethis.-howthingsare.Ex.1)Idonthavenone.(theuseofEx.1)Idonthavenone.(theuseofdoublenegationdoublenegation construction)construction)2)Mathildeisfatterthanme.2)Mathildeisfatterthanme.“There are obvious administrative and educative advantages, “There are obvious administrative and educative advantages, in the modern world, in standardizing the principle dialect thats in the modern world, in standardizing the principle dialect thats employed within a particular country or region.” (Lyons, employed within a particular country or region.” (Lyons, 1982:53)1982:53)1616集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 Linguistics Chapter 1 Linguistics1.1.3.2synchronicvs.diachronic1.1.3.2synchronicvs.diachronic ThedistinctionbetweensynchronicanddiachronicstudyofThedistinctionbetweensynchronicanddiachronicstudyoflanguageisoneofthemostimportantcontributionoflanguageisoneofthemostimportantcontributionofSaussure.Saussure.synchroniclinguistics:thestudyofalanguageatsomepointsynchroniclinguistics:thestudyofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory;alsocalledstaticlinguistics;oftimeinhistory;alsocalledstaticlinguistics;diachroniclinguistics:thestudyofalanguagethroughthediachroniclinguistics:thestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory;alsocalledevolutionaryorhistoricalcourseofitshistory;alsocalledevolutionaryorhistoricallinguistics;linguistics;ObservationObservation: :Analysis:1)withoutsynchronicstudies,therecanbenoAnalysis:1)withoutsynchronicstudies,therecanbenodiachronicstudies;Synchronicdescriptionsarepriortodiachronicstudies;Synchronicdescriptionsarepriortodiachronicdescriptions;diachronicdescriptions;2)therelationsbetweensynchroniclinguistic2)therelationsbetweensynchroniclinguisticphenomenaarenotlikethosebetweendiachroniclinguisticphenomenaarenotlikethosebetweendiachroniclinguisticphenomena.phenomena.3)asalanguageuser,itssufficienttoknowthestate3)asalanguageuser,itssufficienttoknowthestateoflanguageathistime.oflanguageathistime.SeminarSeminar:commentonSaussuresdistinctionofdiachronic:commentonSaussuresdistinctionofdiachroniclinguisticsfromsynchroniclinguistics.linguisticsfromsynchroniclinguistics. 1717集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 Linguistics Chapter 1 Linguistics1.1.3.3langueandparole1.1.3.3langueandparoleItwasFerdinanddeSaussure,thepioneerofstructuralItwasFerdinanddeSaussure,thepioneerofstructurallinguisticsasanautonomousscience,whocalledlanguagealinguisticsasanautonomousscience,whocalledlanguageasocialfact.socialfact.ForSaussure,itisreasonablyclearthatLangueexistsasasocialForSaussure,itisreasonablyclearthatLangueexistsasasocialobject.object.LangueLangueis:is: “both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of “both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty.”to permit individuals to exercise that faculty.” languelangue: abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a : abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.speech community. conventional;abstract;relativelystableandsystematicalconventional;abstract;relativelystableandsystematicalParole:Parole: instancesoftheuseoflanguage;therealizationofinstancesoftheuseoflanguage;therealizationoflanguelangueconcrete,specifictothesituationinwhichisoccurs;concrete,specifictothesituationinwhichisoccurs;naturallyoccurringeventnaturallyoccurringeventsubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraintssubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints1818集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 Linguistics Chapter 1 LinguisticsSaussuresaid:Saussuresaid:“In separating langue from parole, we are “In separating langue from parole, we are separating whats social from whats individual and separating whats social from whats individual and whats essential from whats ancillary or whats essential from whats ancillary or accidental.”accidental.”Langueunderliesparole;paroleisnotsuitableforLangueunderliesparole;paroleisnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation;systematicinvestigation;WhatthelinguisthastodoistoabstractlangueWhatthelinguisthastodoistoabstractlanguefromparole.fromparole.FromSaussure,theobjectoflinguisticstudyisFromSaussure,theobjectoflinguisticstudyisstressedontheregularityorunderlyinglinguisticstressedontheregularityorunderlyinglinguisticsystem.system.1919集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 Linguistics Chapter 1 Linguistics1.1.3.4Competenceandperformance1.1.3.4CompetenceandperformanceFollowingSaussure,Chomsky(1965)proposedasimilardivisionFollowingSaussure,Chomsky(1965)proposedasimilardivisionfrompsychologicalviewpoint.frompsychologicalviewpoint.competencecompetence:idealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.:idealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Notbook-learningknowledge;butthegrammaticalrulesNotbook-learningknowledge;butthegrammaticalrulesinternalizedbythechildinternalizedbythechildsubconsciouslinguisticknowledgesubconsciouslinguisticknowledgeNolevels:allnativespeakersaresaidtopossessthesameNolevels:allnativespeakersaresaidtopossessthesamegeneralunderstandingoflinguisticstructuresandtorecognizegeneralunderstandingoflinguisticstructuresandtorecognizewhatsgrammaticalorungrammatical.whatsgrammaticalorungrammatical.performanceperformance:thespecificuseoftheknowledgeunderproper:thespecificuseoftheknowledgeunderproperconditions;theactualizationoftheknowledgeinlinguisticconditions;theactualizationoftheknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.communication.Twoaspectsofbehaviorconcerningwithperformance:Twoaspectsofbehaviorconcerningwithperformance:“Shespeaksindistinctively.”-usageoflanguage“Shespeaksindistinctively.”-usageoflanguage“Shespeakspersuasively.”-useoflanguage“Shespeakspersuasively.”-useoflanguageEx.Thisisapen.Ex.Thisisapen.Therearelevelsofperformance:poorly;adequately;perfectlyTherearelevelsofperformance:poorly;adequately;perfectly2020集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 Linguistics Chapter 1 Linguisticscompetenceusageperformanceuse2121集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 Linguistics Chapter 1 LinguisticsRelationbetweenRelationbetweencompetenceandperformancecompetenceandperformanceAspeakerscompetenceisstablewhilehisAspeakerscompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.andsocialfactors.AspeakersperformancedoesntalwaysmatchorAspeakersperformancedoesntalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.equalhissupposedcompetence.AllthenativespeakersaresaidtopossessthesameAllthenativespeakersaresaidtopossessthesamegeneralunderstandingoflinguisticstructuresgeneralunderstandingoflinguisticstructuresDistinctionbetweenDistinctionbetweenlangueandcompetencelangueandcompetenceChomskysconceptoflinguisticperformanceisChomskysconceptoflinguisticperformanceissimilartoSaussuresconceptofparole,whilehissimilartoSaussuresconceptofparole,whilehisuseoflinguisticcompetenceissomewhatdifferentuseoflinguisticcompetenceissomewhatdifferentfromSaussureslanguefromSaussureslangue. . 2222集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Langue / competenceessenceessencefeaturesfeatures viewpoints viewpointsperspectivperspective e languelanguesocial social product and product and a set of a set of conventions conventions of a speech of a speech communitycommunity static / static / conventionconventional alTreat language as Treat language as an objective an objective language system language system described by described by peoplepeopleSociologicSociological/structural/structural alcompetencecompetenceproperty of property of the mind of the mind of each each individualindividualgenetic / genetic / intuitive / intuitive / innateinnatePotential ability in Potential ability in the process of the process of generating and generating and transforming transforming language besides language besides describing itdescribing itpsychologpsychologicalical2323集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.2WhatslanguageLanguagecanmeanLanguagecanmeanwhatapersonsayswhatapersonsays(e.g. bad language, expressions) (e.g. bad language, expressions) thewayofspeakingorwritingthewayofspeakingorwriting(e.g. Shakespeares language, Luxuns language)(e.g. Shakespeares language, Luxuns language)aparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwritingaparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language) (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language) theabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthetheabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunityspeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity (e.g. Chinese language, first language) (e.g. Chinese language, first language) thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguagesthecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages (e.g. He studies language)(e.g. He studies language)atoolforhumancommunicationatoolforhumancommunication (social function) (social function) asetofrulesasetofrules (rule-governed) (rule-governed) 2424集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.2.1 Definition of languageSapirs definition (1921)Sapirs definition (1921)“Language is a purely human and “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”voluntarily produced symbols.”Language: An Introduction to the Language: An Introduction to the Study of SpeechStudy of Speech (1921) (1921)2525集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Halls definition (1968)Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”2626集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chomskys definition (1957)“From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”Syntactic Structures (1957)2727集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”-Bernard Bloch (1907-1965)-Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager (1906-& George Trager (1906-1992): 1992): Outline of Linguistic AnalysisOutline of Linguistic Analysis (1942) (1942)“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.”-George Trager: -George Trager: The Field of LinguisticsThe Field of Linguistics (1949) (1949)2828集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”-Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)2929集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。“Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.”l lItisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingItisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.byspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.l lItissocialandconventionalinthatItissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemioticandlanguageisasocialsemioticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplacecommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcues,motivation,andsocio-nonverbalcues,motivation,andsocio-culturalroles.culturalroles. - Our textbook (2006)3030集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Language can be generally defined asa system of arbitrary vocal symbols designed for human communication.3131集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1)Languageisasystem Systematic- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; cant be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.3232集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。2)Languageisarbitraryarbitrary- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.3333集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。3)LanguageissymbolicinnatureSymbolic- words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. , Juliet says:“Whats in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name could smell as sweet.”3434集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 LinguisticsChapter 1 LinguisticsSeminar:Seminar:Nowthatlanguageisarbitrary,canwenameanobjectatNowthatlanguageisarbitrary,canwenameanobjectatwill?will?- -“There is glory for you!”“There is glory for you!”- “I dont know what you mean by glory” Alice said.- “I dont know what you mean by glory” Alice said.- “Of course you dont till I tell you. I meant there is a nice , - “Of course you dont till I tell you. I meant there is a nice , knockdown argument for you! ”knockdown argument for you! ”- “But glory doesnt mean a nice knockdown - “But glory doesnt mean a nice knockdown argument”, Alice objected.argument”, Alice objected.- “When I use a word,” Humpty Dumpty said, in rather a - “When I use a word,” Humpty Dumpty said, in rather a scornful tone,” it means just what I choose it to mean_ neither scornful tone,” it means just what I choose it to mean_ neither more nor less.”more nor less.”- “The question is ,“ said Alice, “whether you can make - “The question is ,“ said Alice, “whether you can make words mean so many different things.”words mean so many different things.”(LewisCarrell,Throughthelooking-Glass)(LewisCarrell,Throughthelooking-Glass)3535集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 LinguisticsChapter 1 LinguisticsBecause of arbitrariness, learning a language is creative potentially; because of conventionality, language learning is laborious.3636集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。4) Language is primarily vocal3) vocal- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. 2 major media of language: speech / writingA. Children acquire spoken language before they can read or write;B. spoken language came long before written forms3737集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。5)Languageishuman-specific4)humanspecific-differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.Thegiftoflanguageisthesinglehumantraitthatmarksusallgenetically,settingusapartfromtherestoflife. Lewis Thomas, Lewis Thomas, the Lives of a Cellthe Lives of a CellWhenwestudylanguage,weareapproachingwhatsomemightcallthe“humanessence”,thedistinctivequalitiesofmindthatare,asfarasweknow,uniquetoman. Chomsky, Chomsky, Language & MindLanguage & Mind3838集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。The Ogre by W.H. Audenby W.H. AudenTheogredoeswhatogrescan,Theogredoeswhatogrescan,DeedsquiteimpossibleforMan,DeedsquiteimpossibleforMan,Butoneprizeisbeyondhisreach,Butoneprizeisbeyondhisreach,Theogrecannotmasterspeech.Theogrecannotmasterspeech.Aboutasubjugatedplain,Aboutasubjugatedplain,Amongthedesperateandslain,Amongthedesperateandslain,Theogrestalkswithhandsonhips,Theogrestalkswithhandsonhips,Anddrivelgushesfromhislips.Anddrivelgushesfromhislips.Language is what distinguishes us from other Language is what distinguishes us from other animals.animals.3939集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.2.2DesignFeatures-Refertodistinguishingfeaturesordefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockett(1916-1996),aleadingfigureofpost-bloomfieldianlinguistics.Hespecified12designfeatures,herewelldiscuss5ofthem:4040集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。HumanlanguageisuniqueArbitrariness Duality Creativity Displacementcultural transmissioncultural transmission4141集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.2.2.1arbitrariness-Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings1)arbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaningEx.ThemurmuroushauntoffliesonSummereves.(KeatsOde to a Nightingale)“its only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.”(widdowson,1996)4242集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 Linguistics Chapter 1 LinguisticsA. different sounds are used to refer to the same object A. different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.in different languages.B.onomatopoeiawordsB.onomatopoeiawords (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, . motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, . Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang )Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang )the number is small; even those are different among the number is small; even those are different among languages. languages. a crow of a rooster: cock-a-doodle-doo (in English) a crow of a rooster: cock-a-doodle-doo (in English) kukkokoekuu (in Finnish) kukkokoekuu (in Finnish) gege (in Chinese) gege (in Chinese)C.compoundwordsC.compoundwordsare not entirely arbitrary, e.g. are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopytype-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopyD.interjections:D.interjections:ouch (in English) aie (in French)ouch (in English) aie (in French)4343集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 LinguisticsChapter 1 Linguistics2)arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel2)arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevelLanguageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevelLanguageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevelHecameinandsatdown.Hecameinandsatdown.Hesatdownandcamein.Hesatdownandcamein.Hesatdownafterhecamein.Hesatdownafterhecamein.1.2.2.2duality1.2.2.2dualityLanguageisdual.Itisasystemoftwostructures:Languageisdual.Itisasystemoftwostructures:SystemofsoundsSystemofsounds:asetofdiscrete,distinctivesounds;:asetofdiscrete,distinctivesounds;meaninglessinthemselves;basiclevel;lowerrank;meaninglessinthemselves;basiclevel;lowerrank;secondaryunitssecondaryunitsSystemofmeaningSystemofmeaning:soundssequencesintermsof:soundssequencesintermsofdiscretesoundsthatconstitutetocarrymeaning;discretesoundsthatconstitutetocarrymeaning;meaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,words,etc);meaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,words,etc);higherrank;primaryunitshigherrank;primaryunits4444集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 LinguisticsChapter 1 LinguisticsAlowerrankofdiscretesoundsbeinggroupedorAlowerrankofdiscretesoundsbeinggroupedorregroupedintoahigherrankofmeaningfulsoundregroupedintoahigherrankofmeaningfulsoundsequences(word),andthenbuildinguplargerlinguisticsequences(word),andthenbuildinguplargerlinguisticchunks,suchaswordgroups,phrases,clauses,sentences,chunks,suchaswordgroups,phrases,clauses,sentences,paragraphs,sections,chapters,etc.paragraphs,sections,chapters,etc.kkA At_lowerlevelt_lowerlevelcattackact_higherlevelcattackact_higherlevelSeminar:Seminar:Does animal communication system have duality? Does animal communication system have duality? why?why?Do traffic lights have duality? WhyDo traffic lights have duality? Why4545集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Conclusion:Theadvantageofdualityoflanguagemakesit possible that human can make infinitesentencesusingfinitewordsandthousandsof words out of a small set of sounds(around 48 in the case of the Englishlanguage).A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. 4646集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.2.2.3Productivity/Creativity1.2.2.3Productivity/Creativity-language-language isis resourcefulresourceful becausebecause ofof itsits dualitydualityandrecursiveness.andrecursiveness.dualityduality-totoformforminfiniteinfinitesetsetofofsentences,sentences,mostmostofofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard;whichareneverbeforeproducedorheard;recursivenessrecursiveness - a a theoreticaltheoretical basisbasis forfor thethepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.possibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.1)to1)toproducenewsentencesneverspokenbeforeproducenewsentencesneverspokenbeforeandtounderstandsentencesneverheardbefore;andtounderstandsentencesneverheardbefore;2)to2)tocreatepossiblesentencesviafinitenumberofcreatepossiblesentencesviafinitenumberofwords;words;Conclusion:Conclusion:CreativityisauniversalpropertyofhumanCreativityisauniversalpropertyofhumanlanguage.Languagecanneverbeexhausted.language.Languagecanneverbeexhausted.4747集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。AgibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbonAgibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichdrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.impossible.Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asThebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeeofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesireshopesordesires4848集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。eg.DanielBoonedecidedtobecomeapioneerbecausehedreamedofpigeon-toedgiraffesandcross-eyedelephantsdancinginpinkskirtsandgreenberetsonthewind-sweptplainsofthemid-west.4949集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 LinguisticsChapter 1 LinguisticsEx.ThisisthehouseThisisthehousethatjackbuilt.Thisisthemaltthatlayinthehousethatjackbuilt.Thisisthedaythatworriedthecatthatkilledtheratthatatethemaltthatlayinthehousethatjackbuilt.Creativityisauniversalpropertyofhumanlanguage.Languagecanneverbeexhausted.5050集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 LinguisticsChapter 1 Linguistics1.2.2.4displacement-languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharenotpresent,readorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfutureorinfar-awayplaces.DogsbarkingBeesdancingLanguageisnotcloselytiedtotheimmediatesituation.5151集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 LinguisticsChapter 1 Linguistics1.2.2.5culturaltransmissionLanguageisnottransmittedgeneticallyfromgenerationtogeneration,butthedetailsoflinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Genetically_bynatureCulturally_bynurture5252集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Examples:Examples:Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhichareAllcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsalmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.andbees.AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotAChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageismutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassedonfromculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.learning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthataThestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoeshumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.notacquirehumanlanguage.5353集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.3OriginsoflanguageThegenesisoflanguageisnottobesoughtintheprosaic,butThegenesisoflanguageisnottobesoughtintheprosaic,butinthepoeticsideoflife;thesourceofspeechisnotgloomyinthepoeticsideoflife;thesourceofspeechisnotgloomyseriousness,butmerryplayandyouthfulhilarityinseriousness,butmerryplayandyouthfulhilarityinprimitivespeechIhearthelaughingcriesofexultationwhenprimitivespeechIhearthelaughingcriesofexultationwhenladsandlassiesviedwithoneanothertoattracttheattentionladsandlassiesviedwithoneanothertoattracttheattentionoftheothersex,wheneverybodysanghismerriestandoftheothersex,wheneverybodysanghismerriestanddancedhisbravesttolureapairofeyestothrowadmiringdancedhisbravesttolureapairofeyestothrowadmiringglancesinhisdirection.Languagewasborninthecourtingglancesinhisdirection.Languagewasborninthecourtingdaysofmankind.daysofmankind.OttoJespersen(1921)OttoJespersen(1921)Human language originated while humans were Human language originated while humans were actually enjoying themselvesactually enjoying themselves5454集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.3.1ThedivinesourceInmanyreligions,thereappearsInmanyreligions,thereappearstobeadivinesourcewhotobeadivinesourcewhoprovideshumanswithlanguage.provideshumanswithlanguage.“InthebeginningwastheWord,“InthebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andandtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod.”theWordwasGod.”(Gospel,John1:1)(Gospel,John1:1)GodcreatedAdamand“whatsoeverGodcreatedAdamand“whatsoeverAdamcalledeverylivingAdamcalledeverylivingcreature,thatwasthenamecreature,thatwasthenamethereof.”thereof.”(Genesis,2:19)(Genesis,2:19)5555集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。l lInHindutradition,languagecamefromthegoddessInHindutradition,languagecamefromthegoddessSarasvati,wifeofBrahma,creatoroftheuniverse.Sarasvati,wifeofBrahma,creatoroftheuniverse.l lAnEgyptianpharaohnamedPsammetichustriedtheAnEgyptianpharaohnamedPsammetichustriedtheexperimentwithtwonewborninfantsoftheoriginalexperimentwithtwonewborninfantsoftheoriginalGod-givenlanguagearound600BC.God-givenlanguagearound600BC.5656集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.3.2thenatural-soundsourceThree“naturalsound”proposals:Three“naturalsound”proposals:1)bow-wowtheory1)bow-wowtheoryPrimitivesoundscouldhavebeenimitationsofthePrimitivesoundscouldhavebeenimitationsofthenaturalsoundswhichearlymenandwomenheardnaturalsoundswhichearlymenandwomenheardaroundthem.Thisiscalled“bow-wowtheory”ofaroundthem.Thisiscalled“bow-wowtheory”oflanguageorigin.languageorigin.l lOnomatopoeicOnomatopoeicwords(echoingnaturalsounds)seemtowords(echoingnaturalsounds)seemtobeaconvenientevidenceforthistheory.Buttheyarebeaconvenientevidenceforthistheory.Buttheyareverydifferentinthedegreeofresemblancetheyexpressverydifferentinthedegreeofresemblancetheyexpresswiththenaturalsounds.withthenaturalsounds.Thistheorylackssupportiveevidence.Thistheorylackssupportiveevidence. 5757集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。2)The“pooh-pooh”theoryOriginalsoundsoflanguagecameformnaturalcriesofemotion,suchaspain,angerandjoy.l lWhatmakesthetheoryproblematicisthatWhatmakesthetheoryproblematicisthatthereisonlyalimitednumberofinterjectionsthereisonlyalimitednumberofinterjectionsinalmostalllanguages.inalmostalllanguages.l lBesides,interjectionssuchasBesides,interjectionssuchas Oh, Ah, Oops, Oh, Ah, Oops, wow, wow, arenotactuallyutteredviathearenotactuallyutteredviatheconsonantsandvowelsweuseintryingtowriteconsonantsandvowelsweuseintryingtowritethemdown,sobearlittlerelationshipwiththethemdown,sobearlittlerelationshipwiththesoundsystemofalanguageandthereforearesoundsystemofalanguageandthereforearenotgoodevidence.notgoodevidence.5858集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。3)The“yo-heave-ho”theoryThesoundsofapersoninvolvedinThesoundsofapersoninvolvedinphysicaleffortcouldbethesourceofourphysicaleffortcouldbethesourceofourlanguage,espwhenthatphysicaleffortlanguage,espwhenthatphysicaleffortinvolvedseveralpeopleandhadtobeinvolvedseveralpeopleandhadtobecoordinated.coordinated.Theearlyhumansworkedtogether,andTheearlyhumansworkedtogether,andproducedsomeasetofgrunts,groansproducedsomeasetofgrunts,groansandswearwordswhichgraduallyandswearwordswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintodevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.language.HumansoundsproducedmayhavehadHumansoundsproducedmayhavehadsomeprincipledusewithinthesociallifesomeprincipledusewithinthesociallifeofearlyhumangroups.ofearlyhumangroups.Butitdoesntanswerthequestion!ApesButitdoesntanswerthequestion!Apesandotherprimateshavegruntsandandotherprimateshavegruntsandsocialcalls,dotheyhavedevelopedthesocialcalls,dotheyhavedevelopedthecapacityofspeech?capacityofspeech?5959集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.3.3theoral-gesturesourceOriginallyasetofphysicalgestureswasdevelopedOriginallyasetofphysicalgestureswasdevelopedasameansofcommunication.Thenasetoforalasameansofcommunication.Thenasetoforalgestures,speciallyinvolvingthemouth,developed,gestures,speciallyinvolvingthemouth,developed,inwhichthemovementsofthetongue,lipsandsoinwhichthemovementsofthetongue,lipsandsoonwererecognizedaccordingtopatternsofonwererecognizedaccordingtopatternsofmovementsimilartophysicalgestures.movementsimilartophysicalgestures.Eg.ThemovementofthetongueingoodbyeEg.Themovementofthetongueingoodbyemessageisrepresentativeofthewavingoftheandmessageisrepresentativeofthewavingoftheandorarmforasimilarmessage.orarmforasimilarmessage.WecanindeedusespecificgesturesforavarietyofWecanindeedusespecificgesturesforavarietyofcommunicativepurposes,butItishardtocommunicativepurposes,butItishardtovisualizetheactualoralaspectwhichwouldvisualizetheactualoralaspectwhichwouldmirrormanysuchgestures.mirrormanysuchgestures.Agame:myunclethinkshesinvisible.Agame:myunclethinkshesinvisible.6060集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.4.FunctionsoflanguageLinguiststalkaboutthefunctionsoflanguageinanabstractsense,thatis,notintermsofusinglanguagetochat,tothink,tobuyandsell,toreadandwrite,togreet,praiseandcondemnpeople,etc.Theysummarizethesepracticalfunctionsandattemptsomebroadclassificationsofthebasicfunctionsoflanguage.6161集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。ForJakobson,languageisaboveallforcommunication.l lWhileformanypeople,thepurposeofcommunicationisreferential,forhim(andthePragueschoolstructuralists),referenceisnottheonly,noteventheprimarygoalofcommunication. 6262集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Inhisfamousarticle,Linguistics and Poetics,hedefinedsixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,namely:l lspeaker,addressee,context,message,code,speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.contact.Inconjunctionwiththese,Jakobsonestablishedawell-knownframeworkoflanguagefunctionsbasedonthesixkeyelementsofcommunication,namely:6363集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。referential(toconveymessageandinformation)poetic(toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake)emotive(toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions)conative(topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandrequests)phatic(toestablishcommunionwithothers)metalingual(toclearupintentionsandmeanings)6464集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Theycorrespondtosuchcommunicationelementsascontext, message, addresser, addressee, contactandcoderespectively.Jakobsonsviewsofthefunctionsoflanguagearestillofgreatimportance.6565集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。ContextContextREFERENTIALREFERENTIALAddresserAddresserEMOTIVEEMOTIVE(e.g. (e.g. intonation intonation showing anger)showing anger)MessageMessagePOETICPOETIC(e.g. poetry)(e.g. poetry)AddresseeAddresseeCONATIVECONATIVE(e.g. (e.g. imperatives and imperatives and vocatives)vocatives)ContactContactPHATICPHATIC(e.g. Good (e.g. Good morning!)morning!)CodeCodeMETALINGUALMETALINGUAL(e.g. Hello, do you hear me?)(e.g. Hello, do you hear me?)6666集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehasideational,interpersonalandtextualfunctions. Ideationalfunctionconstructsamodelofexperienceaswellaslogicalrelations,interpersonalfunctionenactssocialrelationshipsandtextualfunctioncreatesrelevancetocontext.6767集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Inhisearlierworks,Hallidayproposedsevencategoriesoflanguagefunctionsbyobservingchildlanguagedevelopment:l lInstrumentalInstrumentall lRegulatoryRegulatoryl lRepresentationalRepresentationall lInteractionalInteractionall lPersonalPersonall lHeuristicHeuristicl lImaginativeImaginative6868集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Stillotherclassificationsemploydifferentcategoriesandusedifferentterms,butallsharealotincommonaboutthebasicfunctionsoflanguage.l lBelowisasummaryofthemajorfunctionsofBelowisasummaryofthemajorfunctionsoflanguage.language. 6969集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.4.1InformativefunctionLanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenfeelneedtospeaktheirthoughtsaloud.Theuseoflanguagetorecordthefactsisaprerequisiteofsocialdevelopment.Theinformativefunctionisindeedacrucialfunctionoflanguage. l lItisalsocalledItisalsocalledideationalideationalfunctioninthefunctionintheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar.frameworkoffunctionalgrammar.l lEg.Eg.Read pages 1-10 for the test.Read pages 1-10 for the test. l lTheuniverseisbounded!Theuniverseisbounded!7070集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Hallidaynotesthatl l“Languageservesfortheexpressionof“Languageservesfortheexpressionofcontent:thatis,ofthespeakersexperienceofcontent:thatis,ofthespeakersexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhistherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.Inservingthisfunction,ownconsciousness.Inservingthisfunction,languagealsogivesstructuretoexperience,andlanguagealsogivesstructuretoexperience,andhelpstodetermineourwayoflookingatthings,helpstodetermineourwayoflookingatthings,sothatitrequiressomeintellectualefforttoseesothatitrequiressomeintellectualefforttoseetheminanyotherwaythanthatwhichourtheminanyotherwaythanthatwhichourlanguagesuggeststous”.languagesuggeststous”.7171集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。featuresa.Theinformativefunctionaffirmsordeniesa.Theinformativefunctionaffirmsordeniespropositions,asinscienceorthestatementofapropositions,asinscienceorthestatementofafact.fact.b.Thisfunctionisusedtodescribetheworldorb.Thisfunctionisusedtodescribetheworldorreasonaboutit(reasonaboutit(e.ge.g.,whetherastateofaffairs.,whetherastateofaffairshasoccurredornotorwhatmighthaveledtoit).hasoccurredornotorwhatmighthaveledtoit).c.Thesesentenceshaveatruthvalue;thatis,c.Thesesentenceshaveatruthvalue;thatis,thesentencesareeithertrueorfalse.Hence,thesentencesareeithertrueorfalse.Hence,theyareimportantforlogic.theyareimportantforlogic.7272集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.4.2InterpersonalfunctionByfarthemostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,andbywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.Intheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar,theinterpersonalfunctionisconcernedwithinteractionbetweentheaddresserandaddresseeinthediscoursesituationandtheaddressersattitudetowardwhathespeaksorwritesabout. 7373集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Forexample,thewaysinwhichpeopleaddressothersandrefertothemselves(e.g.Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant)indicatethevariousgradesofinterpersonalrelations.7474集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Attachedtotheinterpersonalfunctionisitsfunctionofexpressingidentity.Forexample,l lthechantingofacrowdatafootballmatch,thechantingofacrowdatafootballmatch,l ltheshoutingofnamesorslogansatpublictheshoutingofnamesorslogansatpublicmeetings,meetings,l lthestage-managedaudiencereactionstoTVthestage-managedaudiencereactionstoTVgameshowsgameshowsl lTheyallsignalwhoweareandwhereweTheyallsignalwhoweareandwherewebelong.belong.7575集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Languagemarksouridentity,physicallyintermsofage,sex,andvoiceprints;psychologicallyintermsoflanguage,personalityandintelligence;geographicallyintermsofaccentsanddialects;ethnicallyandsociallyintermsofsocialstratification,class,status,role,solidarityanddistance.7676集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Theinterpersonalfunctionissuchabroadcategorythatitisoftendiscussedundervariousothertermsasinthefollowingperformative,emotive,expressiveandphaticfunctionsoflanguage.Theyseemtoemphasizedifferentaspectsoftheinterpersonalfunction.7777集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.4.3PerformativefunctionThisconceptoriginatesfromthephilosophicalThisconceptoriginatesfromthephilosophicalstudyoflanguagerepresentedbyAustinandstudyoflanguagerepresentedbyAustinandSearle,whosetheorynowformstheback-boneofSearle,whosetheorynowformstheback-boneofpragmatics.pragmatics.TheTheperformativeperformativefunctionfunctionmeansmeanslanguage can language can be used to perform the action it reports.be used to perform the action it reports.Forexample:Forexample:l lInowdeclarethemeetingopen.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.l lIbetyoutwopoundsitwillraintomorrow.Ibetyoutwopoundsitwillraintomorrow. l lYoure smoking in a nonsmoking areaYoure smoking in a nonsmoking area 7878集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。l lForexample,inChinesewhenForexample,inChinesewhensomeonebreaksabowloraplatesomeonebreaksabowloraplatethehostorthepeoplepresentarethehostorthepeoplepresentarelikelytosaylikelytosay岁岁平安岁岁平安岁岁平安岁岁平安asameansasameansofcontrollingtheinvisibleforcesofcontrollingtheinvisibleforceswhichthebelieversfeelmightwhichthebelieversfeelmightaffecttheirlivesadversely.affecttheirlivesadversely.n nTheperformativefunctioncanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasions.7979集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.4.4EmotivefunctionTheemotivefunctionoflanguageisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Itisameansofgettingridofournervousenergywhenweareunderstress,e.g.swearwords,obscenities,involuntaryverbalreactionstoapieceofartorscenery;conventionalwords/phrases,e.g.l lGod,My,Damnit,Whatasight,Wow,Ugh,Oh.God,My,Damnit,Whatasight,Wow,Ugh,Oh.l lIm really glad!Im really glad! 8080集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。ItisalsodiscussedunderthetermexpressiveItisalsodiscussedunderthetermexpressivefunction.Theexpressivefunctioncanoftenbefunction.Theexpressivefunctioncanoftenbeentirelypersonalandtotallywithoutanyentirelypersonalandtotallywithoutanyimplicationofcommunicationtoothers.implicationofcommunicationtoothers.PoetryandliteratureareamongthebestPoetryandliteratureareamongthebestexamples,butmuchof,perhapsmostof,ordinaryexamples,butmuchof,perhapsmostof,ordinarylanguagediscourseistheexpressionofemotions,languagediscourseistheexpressionofemotions,feelingsorattitudes.feelingsorattitudes. ExpressivediscourseisbestregardedasneitherExpressivediscourseisbestregardedasneithertrueorfalse.trueorfalse.E.gE.g.Ripenessisall!.Ripenessisall!(ShakespearesKingLearslament)(ShakespearesKingLearslament)Itwasthebestoftimes,itwastheworstofItwasthebestoftimes,itwastheworstoftimes;itwastheageofwisdom;itwastheageoftimes;itwastheageofwisdom;itwastheageoffoolishnessfoolishness(Dickens)(Dickens)8181集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.4.5PhaticcommunionPhaticcommunionreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage,originatingfromMalinowskisstudyofthefunctionsoflanguageperformedbyTrobriandIslanders.Forexample,n nMrs. P sneezes violently.Mrs. P sneezes violently. n nMrs.Q:Mrs.Q:Blessyou.Blessyou.n nMrs.P:Mrs.P:Thankyou.Thankyou.8282集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Weallusesuchsmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionstomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent. Elevatortalkandstreet-cornerconversationsaccomplishingasocialtask.l lRitualexchangesabouthealthorweathersuchRitualexchangesabouthealthorweathersuchasasGood morning, God bless you, Nice dayGood morning, God bless you, Nice dayoftenoftenstatetheobvious.Yettheyindicatethatastatetheobvious.Yettheyindicatethatachannelofcommunicationisopenifitshouldchannelofcommunicationisopenifitshouldbeneeded.beneeded.8383集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Differentcultureshavedifferenttopicsofphaticcommunion.l lAccordingtoDavidCrystal,theAccordingtoDavidCrystal,theweatherisnotauniversalweatherisnotauniversalconversationfillerastheEnglishconversationfillerastheEnglishmightliketothink.mightliketothink.l lRundiwomen(inBurundi,CentralRundiwomen(inBurundi,CentralAfrica),upontakingleave,routinelyAfrica),upontakingleave,routinelyandpolitelysayandpolitelysay“Imustgohome“Imustgohomenow,ormyhusbandwillbeatme.”now,ormyhusbandwillbeatme.” 8484集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Broadlyspeaking,thisfunctionreferstoexpressionsthathelpdefineandmaintaininterpersonalrelations,suchasslang,jokes,jargons,ritualisticexchanges,switchestosocialandregionaldialects.l lWehavetolearnalargerepertoireofsuchWehavetolearnalargerepertoireofsuchusagesifwearetointeractcomfortablywithusagesifwearetointeractcomfortablywithdifferentpeople.differentpeople. 8585集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。1.4.6RecreationalfunctionTherecreationalfunctionofalanguageisoftenoverlookedbecauseitseemssorestrictiveinpurposeandsupposedlysolimitedinusefulness.However,noonewilldenytheuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababysbabblingorachanterschanting.8686集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。IntheLatinandIslamicworldsaswellasinsomeareasofChina,thereiswidespreaduseofverbaldueling,inwhichonesingerbeginsasongofusuallyfewlinesandchallengeshisopponenttocontinuethecontentorprovidearejoinderinasimilarrhythmandrhymescheme.l lSuchverbalduelsmaylastforafewSuchverbalduelsmaylastforafewhoursandisperformedforthesheerhoursandisperformedforthesheerjoyofplayingonlanguage.joyofplayingonlanguage.8787集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。To take one example, the well-known movie刘三姐刘三姐features a scene of “对歌对歌” (song dueling) mostly for the sheer joy of playing on language.8888集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Forinstance,poetrywritinggivesthemthepleasureofusinglanguageforitssheerbeauty.l lVerycloseheretoJakobsonspoeticfunction.VerycloseheretoJakobsonspoeticfunction.8989集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。5.7MetalingualfunctionOurlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.Toorganizeanywrittentextintoacoherentwhole,writersemploycertainexpressionstokeeptheirreadersinformedaboutwheretheyareandwheretheyaregoing. 9090集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Forinstance,insteadofsaying l lThelionchasedtheunicornThelionchasedtheunicornallroundthetown,allroundthetown,theysayl lAllaroundthetownthelionAllaroundthetownthelionchasedtheunicorn.chasedtheunicorn. A unicorn9191集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Thisisthemetalingualfunctionoflanguageandmesheswiththethematicfunctionoflanguageinfunctionalgrammar.l lItmakesthelanguageinfinitelyself-reflexive:Itmakesthelanguageinfinitelyself-reflexive:WehumanbeingscantalkabouttalkandthinkWehumanbeingscantalkabouttalkandthinkaboutthinking,andthusonlyhumanscanaskaboutthinking,andthusonlyhumanscanaskwhatitmeanstocommunicate,tothink,tobewhatitmeanstocommunicate,tothink,tobehuman.human.9292集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter2phonology2.1 speech soundsTwo level for the analysis of speech sounds:Phonetics: concerned with the study of the production of sounds;Phonology: concerned with the study of sound patterns2.2 phonetics2.2.1 whats phonetics?9393集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonologyI gradually came to see that phonetics had an I gradually came to see that phonetics had an important bearing on human relations_ that when important bearing on human relations_ that when people of different nations pronounce each others people of different nations pronounce each others languages really well (even if vocabulary / grammar languages really well (even if vocabulary / grammar not perfect), it has an astonishing effect of bringing not perfect), it has an astonishing effect of bringing them together, it puts people on terms of equality, a them together, it puts people on terms of equality, a good understanding between them immediately good understanding between them immediately springs up. springs up. _ DanielJonesDanielJones9494集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonologyPhonetics is concerned with describing the speech Phonetics is concerned with describing the speech sounds that occur in the languages of the world. We sounds that occur in the languages of the world. We want to know what these sounds are, how they fall want to know what these sounds are, how they fall into patterns, and how they change in different into patterns, and how they change in different circumstances the first job of a phonetician is circumstances the first job of a phonetician is to try to find out what people are doing when they to try to find out what people are doing when they are talking and when they are listening to speechare talking and when they are listening to speech. .Peter Ladefoged, A Course in Phonetics, 1982,2nd editionPeter Ladefoged, A Course in Phonetics, 1982,2nd editionPhonetics:Phonetics:thestudyofspeechsounds.Howthesoundsarethestudyofspeechsounds.Howthesoundsareproduced;howtheymaybecharacterized.produced;howtheymaybecharacterized.9595集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。WebresourcesUCLAPhoneticsLabDataUCLAPhoneticsLabDatahttp:/hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/vowehttp:/hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/vowelsandconsonants/index.htmllsandconsonants/index.htmlHereyoullfindrecordingsofallthespeechsoundsyouHereyoullfindrecordingsofallthespeechsoundsyouareinterestedinareinterestedinInternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)InternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)http:/www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/http:/www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/HereyoullfindthelatestversonoftheOPA,includingHereyoullfindthelatestversonoftheOPA,includingvowels,consonants,diacritics,suprasegments,tones,vowels,consonants,diacritics,suprasegments,tones,andwordaccents.Youwillalsofindlinkstositeswhereandwordaccents.YouwillalsofindlinkstositeswhereyoucandownloadIPAfontsforyourwordprocessingyoucandownloadIPAfontsforyourwordprocessingprograms,aswellasinformationaboutrecordingsoftheprograms,aswellasinformationaboutrecordingsofthesoundsofIPA.soundsofIPA.The sounds of the IPAThe sounds of the IPAhttp:/www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/cassette.htmhttp:/www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/cassette.htmACDorcassetteofthesoundsofIPAareavailable.ACDorcassetteofthesoundsofIPAareavailable.9696集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonologyThree main areas in the study of sounds:Three main areas in the study of sounds:articulatoryphoneticsarticulatoryphonetics: the study of the production of : the study of the production of speech sounds; “how speakers produce speech sounds”speech sounds; “how speakers produce speech sounds”acousticsphoneticsacousticsphonetics: the study of the physical properties of : the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech;the sounds produced in speech;auditoryphoneticsauditoryphonetics: concerned with the perception of : concerned with the perception of speech sounds; “how sounds are perceived”speech sounds; “how sounds are perceived”2.2.2 organ of speech/ vocal organs2.2.2 organ of speech/ vocal organs2.2.2.1 three parts2.2.2.1 three parts: : PharyngealcavityPharyngealcavity: initiator of the air-stream : initiator of the air-stream vocal tract vocal tract OralcavityOralcavity: producer of voice : producer of voice NasalcavityNasalcavity: resonating cavities (nasal , : resonating cavities (nasal , N N m m n)n)9797集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Thediagramofspeechorgans1. 1.LipsLips2. 2.TeethTeeth3. 3.Teeth ridge Teeth ridge (alveolar)(alveolar)4. 4.Hard palateHard palate5. 5.Soft palate Soft palate (velum)(velum)6. 6.UvulaUvula7. 7.Tip of tongueTip of tongue8. 8.Blade of tongueBlade of tongue9. 9.Back of tongueBack of tongue10.10.Vocal cordsVocal cords11.11.Pharyngeal cavityPharyngeal cavity12.12.Nasal cavityNasal cavity 9898集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。9999集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonology2.2.2.2 some major phonetic features2.2.2.2 some major phonetic features1) voicing1) voicing all vowels are voiced; all vowels are voiced; some consonants are +voiced; some consonants are +voiced; /l/ and /r/ are voiced regularly , but when following /l/ and /r/ are voiced regularly , but when following voiceless sounds, they are devoiced. please / pricevoiceless sounds, they are devoiced. please / price2) nasality2) nasality only 3 consonants are +nasal: / m n only 3 consonants are +nasal: / m n N N / / all vowels and other consonants are +oral all vowels and other consonants are +oral vowels are nasalized before the nasal consonants : vowels are nasalized before the nasal consonants : beam, cleanbeam, clean3) aspiration3) aspiration voiceless stops: / k p t / voiceless stops: / k p t / voiced stops: / g b d / voiced stops: / g b d /100100集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonology voiceless sounds fall into 2 classes depending on the timing of voiceless sounds fall into 2 classes depending on the timing of the vocal cord closure. Aspirated ; unaspirated the vocal cord closure. Aspirated ; unaspirated when voiceless stops consonants are preceded by /s/, they when voiceless stops consonants are preceded by /s/, they should be unaspirated; pit / spit kin / skinshould be unaspirated; pit / spit kin / skin2.2.3 segments, divergences and phonetics transcription2.2.3 segments, divergences and phonetics transcription2.2.3.1 segments2.2.3.1 segmentsThe sounds we produce and hear are continuous;The sounds we produce and hear are continuous;We can separate one sound into parts because we know the We can separate one sound into parts because we know the language;language;We cant follow the foreigners words because we cant segment We cant follow the foreigners words because we cant segment the continuous sounds. the continuous sounds. Knowing a language means no difficulty in segmenting the Knowing a language means no difficulty in segmenting the continuous sounds;continuous sounds;Some phrases and sentences are clearly distinct when printed Some phrases and sentences are clearly distinct when printed ,but may be ambiguous when reading aloud:,but may be ambiguous when reading aloud:101101集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonology102102集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonologyEx.Ex. 1)1) I scream, you scream, we all scream for ice-cream. I scream, you scream, we all scream for ice-cream. 2)2) Read the following pairs aloud: Read the following pairs aloud: grade A / grey daygrade A / grey day its hard to recognize speech. / its hard to wreck a its hard to recognize speech. / its hard to wreck a nice beech.nice beech. the suns rays meet. / the sons raise meat. the suns rays meet. / the sons raise meat. 2.2.3.2 discrepancy2.2.3.2 discrepancyDivergence between sounds and symbol (spelling) Divergence between sounds and symbol (spelling) seem to be simple. seem to be simple. 1) the different spellings may represent the same 1) the different spellings may represent the same sound;sound; Ex. Ex. Did he believe that Caesar could see the people Did he believe that Caesar could see the people seize the seas?seize the seas?2) the same spelling may represent the different 2) the same spelling may represent the different sounds;sounds; Ex.Ex. My father wanted many a village dame badly.My father wanted many a village dame badly.103103集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonology104104集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonology2.2.3.3 phonetic transcription2.2.3.3 phonetic transcriptionThe divergences between spelling and sounds makes The divergences between spelling and sounds makes it hard to record the sounds people make.it hard to record the sounds people make.International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)Denial Jones (1881-1967)Denial Jones (1881-1967)Two ways to transcribe the speech soundsTwo ways to transcribe the speech sounds1) broad transcription:1) broad transcription: one letter for one phonetic; one letter for one phonetic; one symbol represents one sound without caring one symbol represents one sound without caring about the variations; used in dictionaries or textbooks.about the variations; used in dictionaries or textbooks.2) narrow transcription:2) narrow transcription: to use more specific symbols to use more specific symbols to show more specific phonetic details; used by to show more specific phonetic details; used by phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.105105集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonology106106集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonologybroadandnarrowtranscriptionofEnglishwordsbroadandnarrowtranscriptionofEnglishwordswordswordsBroadBroadtranscriptiontranscriptionNarrowNarrowtranscriptiontranscriptionPhoneticPhoneticdetailsdetailshelphelp/help/help/help/help/velarizationvelarizationplayplay/plei/plei/plei/plei/devoicingdevoicingtenthtenth/ten/tenW W/ /ten/tenW W/ /Aspiration,Aspiration,dentalizationdentalizationbuttonbutton/btn/btn/bn/bn/Glottalization,Glottalization,syllabificationsyllabification107107集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonology2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds two classes: consonants and vowels two classes: consonants and vowelsVowels:Vowels: without obstructions of tongue or lips without obstructions of tongue or lipsConsonants:Consonants: produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract that impedes the flow of air from the lungs.tract that impedes the flow of air from the lungs.2.2.4.1 classification of consonants2.2.4.1 classification of consonants2 factors in classification:2 factors in classification:The place of articulationThe place of articulationThe manner of articulationThe manner of articulation1) places of articulation1) places of articulationBilabial / p b m /Bilabial / p b m /Labiodentals / f v /Labiodentals / f v /Interdentals / Interdentals / W TW T / /Alveolars / t d n s z l r /Alveolars / t d n s z l r /108108集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonologyPalatals Palatals FF,V V,tFtF,dVdV,j j ; ;Velars / k g Velars / k g N N / / Glottal / h /Glottal / h / Place of articulation of English consonants Place of articulation of English consonants_Bilabial b p m Bilabial b p m Labiodentals f vLabiodentals f vInterdentals Interdentals W TW TAlveolars t d n s z l rAlveolars t d n s z l rPalatals Palatals F V F V W TW TVelars k g n Velars k g n Glottal hGlottal h_109109集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonology2)mannerofarticulation2)mannerofarticulationVoicedandvoicelesssounds-whatdistinguishes/p/fromVoicedandvoicelesssounds-whatdistinguishes/p/from/b/?/b/?Fade/faterope/roberack/ragbreath/breatheFade/faterope/roberack/ragbreath/breathePeat/beatseal/zealchoke/jokepeat/beattote/dotePeat/beatseal/zealchoke/jokepeat/beattote/dotekale/galekale/galepate/spatetale/stalekale/scalepate/spatetale/stalekale/scaleNasalandoralsounds-whatdistinguishes/p/from/m/?Nasalandoralsounds-whatdistinguishes/p/from/m/?Allspeechsoundscanbeclassifiedintofourclasses:Allspeechsoundscanbeclassifiedintofourclasses:Voiced/voiceless/nasal/oral;Voiced/voiceless/nasal/oral;Ex.Classifythefollowingspeechsounds:Ex.Classifythefollowingspeechsounds: - - oralnasaloralnasal-VoicedbdgmnVoicedbdgmnVoicelessptk/Voicelessptk/- 110110集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonologyChapter 2 phonologyThree ways of classifying consonants: by voicing; by Three ways of classifying consonants: by voicing; by place of articulation; by oral vs. nasal.place of articulation; by oral vs. nasal.Ex. /p/ is a voiceless, bilabial, oral soundEx. /p/ is a voiceless, bilabial, oral sound /n/ is a voiced, alveolar, nasal sound /n/ is a voiced, alveolar, nasal soundStops /p b t d k g m n Stops /p b t d k g m n N N j / j /Fricatives / f v s z Fricatives / f v s z W W TT h / h /Affricates / Affricates / tFtF dVdV / /Liquids / l r /Liquids / l r /Glides / w j /Glides / w j /111111集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。ThedescriptionofEnglishconsonantsPlacePlacemannermannerVoicVoic-ing-ingBila-Bila-bialbialLabio-Labio-dentaldentalDentalDentalAlveo-Alveo-larlarPalatalPalatalVelarVelar GlottalGlottalStopsorStopsorplosivesplosivesVLVLppttkkVDVDbbddggFrica-Frica-tivestivesVLVL f f W W ss F F hhVDVDvv T T zz V V Affri-Affri-catescatesVLVL( (tFtF ) ) tFtF VDVD( (dVdV ) ) dVdV NasalsNasalsVDVD mm nn N N LiquidsLiquidsVDVDl,l,rrGlidesGlidesVDVDww j j 112112集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonology113113集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonology2.2.4.2 classification of vowels2.2.4.2 classification of vowels1) monophthong1) monophthongthree questions:three questions:How high is the tongue?How high is the tongue?What part of the tongue is involved, and is that part up, down, What part of the tongue is involved, and is that part up, down, or neutral in the mouth?or neutral in the mouth?Whats the position of the lips?Whats the position of the lips?three dimensions:three dimensions:The height of the tongue:The height of the tongue: high; mid; low high; mid; lowThe position of the highest part:The position of the highest part: front; central; back front; central; backLip rounding:Lip rounding: all the front vowels + the central vowels + a: all the front vowels + the central vowels + a: _ -rounded _ -roundedTenseTense- long vowel - long vowel laxlax- short vowel- short vowelTongue position of English vowels:Tongue position of English vowels:114114集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest in the process of production, thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:front vowels: I:, I, e, Z, A,B; central vowels: E:,E,Q;back vowels: u:,u,C:,C,B:.115115集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth:Close:I:,I,u:,u.Semi-close:e,E:;Semi-open:E,C;Open:A,B,C,B:,Q;116116集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 ThediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingThediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned:thetwocriteriasofarmentioned:117117集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。118118集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Accordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliprounding:rounded:u:,u,C:,C;Unrounded:I:,I,e,Z,A,B,E:,E,Q,B:.119119集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。According to the length of the vowelslong: I:,E:,u:,C:,B:short:I,e,Z,A,E,Q,B,u,C.120120集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonologyDescribe the following vowels:/i:/highfronttenseunroundedvowel/uE/highbacklaxroundedvowel/R/mid-lowcentrallaxroundedvowel/R:/lowbackroundedlaxvowel2)diphthongei,ai,aU,EU,Ri,iE,ZE,UE.3)triphthongauEaiE121121集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Exercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithaExercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired:soundasrequired:A bilabial consonant: A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had ladmad sad bad cad pad had ladA velar consonant: A velar consonant: nod god cod pod rodnod god cod pod rodLabiodental consonant: Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat patrat fat sat mat chat vat patAn alveolar consonant: An alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quicknick lick sick tick kick quickA palatal-alveolar consonant: A palatal-alveolar consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zipsip ship tip chip lip zipA interdental consonant: A interdental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie ryelie buy thigh thy tie ryeA glide: A glide: one war yolk rushone war yolk rush122122集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Underlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:A fricative pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave messageA nasal train bang leaf limbA stop drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tipAn affricate: rack such ridge booze123123集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Underline the words that contain the sound Underline the words that contain the sound as required:as required:Acentralvowel: mad lot but boot wordAfrontvowel:reed pad load fate bit bed cook Aroundedvowel: who he bus her hit true boss bar walkAbackvowel: paid reap fool top good father124124集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。DescribetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtoDescribetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:threedimensions:vd/vlplacemannervd/vlplacemannerLeLett ttererBroBroththererSuSunnnny yHoHoppppererIt ItchchingingLoLodgdgererCaCall llingingSiSingngingingRoRobbbbererei eiththerer125125集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonology2.3phonology2.3phonology2.3.1phonologyandphonetics2.3.1phonologyandphoneticsPhoneticsPhoneticsisthestudyofhowspeechsoundsareisthestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,transmittedandreceived;made,transmittedandreceived;PhonologyPhonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsofisthestudyofsoundsystemsoflanguages;concernedwiththelinguisticpatterninglanguages;concernedwiththelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinhumanlanguages;aimingtodiscoverofsoundsinhumanlanguages;aimingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsaretheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur;thatoccur;PhoneticsPhoneticsstudyallpossiblespeechsoundsourstudyallpossiblespeechsoundsourhumanvocalapparatuscanproduce;humanvocalapparatuscanproduce;PhonologyPhonologystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofastudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionoftheselanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.soundsinordertoexpressmeaning.Teati:Teati:Tootu:Tootu:126126集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。2.3.2phone,phonemeandallophone2.3.2phone,phonemeandallophone2.3.2.1phone2.3.2.1phoneThespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringThespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationarealllinguisticcommunicationareallphonesphones. .Aphonedoesntnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Aphonedoesntnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.2.3.2.2phoneme2.3.2.2phonemeThesoundswhichcancauseameaningdifferenceThesoundswhichcancauseameaningdifferencearetermedasaretermedasphoneme,phoneme,suchassuchas /p/and/kinkin/p/and/kinkinandpin;thetranscriptionintosuchphonemicandpin;thetranscriptionintosuchphonemicsymbolsiscalledsymbolsiscalledabroadtranscriptionabroadtranscription;two;twodistinctivephonemesformdistinctivephonemesformaphoneticcontrast.aphoneticcontrast.Thetwovariantsofppofthephoneme/p/areThetwovariantsofppofthephoneme/p/areallophonesallophonesofthatphoneme,writtenbetweenofthatphoneme,writtenbetweenslashes,referredtoasslashes,referredtoasnarrowtranscriptionnarrowtranscription; ;correspondenttoonlyonephoneme/p/.correspondenttoonlyonephoneme/p/.127127集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonology/p/ /t/ _ phonemes/p/ /t/ _ phonemesp p t t _ allophonesp p t t _ allophonesRelationsbetweenphonemeandallophoneRelationsbetweenphonemeandallophone1)1)PhonemePhonemeisthesmallestdistinguishingunitofsounds;isthesmallestdistinguishingunitofsounds;2)2)allophonesallophonesareinthesamephoneme,butdontareinthesamephoneme,butdontdistinguishmeaning;distinguishmeaning;3)3)allophonesallophonesalwaysoccurindifferentphonemicalwaysoccurindifferentphonemicenvironments,theyaresaidtobeincomplementaryenvironments,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.distribution.128128集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。ComplementaryDistributionpph handpcanneveroccurinthesamepositioninaword.andpcanneveroccurinthesamepositioninaword.*p*ptt*sp*sph httTheyareinTheyareincomplementarydistributioncomplementarydistribution. . AsEnglishspeakers,wetacitlyknowwhentopronounceAsEnglishspeakers,wetacitlyknowwhentopronouncepph handpandwethinkofthemasthesamesound.Inandpandwethinkofthemasthesamesound.Inphonology,thatmentalrepresentationofthesinglephonology,thatmentalrepresentationofthesinglesound/p/iscalledasound/p/iscalledaphonemephoneme.Thephysicalsoundsare.Thephysicalsoundsarereferredtoasreferredtoasphonesphones. .Thedifferentpronunciationsof/p/arecalledtheThedifferentpronunciationsof/p/arecalledtheallophonesallophonesof/p/.of/p/.集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Twoallophonesof/p/PhonemeAllophonesDistributionphBeginwordandBeginwordandbeginstressedbeginstressed /p/pElsewhereElsewhere集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。2.3.2.3minimalpairspph h and p never occur in the same linguistic and p never occur in the same linguistic context because they are allophones context because they are allophones (variations) of the same phoneme.(variations) of the same phoneme.How about our other bilabial stop b?How about our other bilabial stop b?pph htt t th hppbtbt t th hbbb does occur in the same environment as both b does occur in the same environment as both pph h and p and when it does, it creates an and p and when it does, it creates an entirely different word of English. These are theentirely different word of English. These are the minimalpairminimalpairwe saw before. we saw before. Minimal pairs = separate phonemesMinimal pairs = separate phonemesMinimalpairsMinimalpairsrefertotwowordswhichareidentifiedrefertotwowordswhichareidentifiedexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursintheexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestringsofsounds.pit;bitsameplaceinthestringsofsounds.pit;bit131131集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。SomeoftheminimalpairsinEnglishphonemes(Crystal,1997:162)Vowels Vowels /i:/-/i/ beat-bit; /i/-/e/ bit-bet; /i:/-/i/ beat-bit; /i/-/e/ bit-bet; /e/-/A/ bet-bat; /A/-/Q/ bat-but; /e/-/A/ bet-bat; /A/-/Q/ bat-but; /Q/-/B:/ but-heart; / B:/-/ C/ heart-hot/Q/-/B:/ but-heart; / B:/-/ C/ heart-hot/C/-/C:/ pot-port; /C:/ -/ u/ port-put /C/-/C:/ pot-port; /C:/ -/ u/ port-put / u / - / u :/ full-fool /u:/-/ E:/ cool-curl / u / - / u :/ full-fool /u:/-/ E:/ cool-curl / E:/-/ei/ girl-gale /ei/-/ ai / tale-tile/ E:/-/ei/ girl-gale /ei/-/ ai / tale-tile/ ai/-/ Ri/ tile-toil / Ri / -/ EU / toil-toll / ai/-/ Ri/ tile-toil / Ri / -/ EU / toil-toll / EU/-/ aU/ tone-town /aU/-/iE/ how-hear/ EU/-/ aU/ tone-town /aU/-/iE/ how-hear/ iE/-/ZE/ here-hair / ZE/-/UE/ pair-poor/ iE/-/ZE/ here-hair / ZE/-/UE/ pair-poor/ UE/-/i:/ poor-pea/ UE/-/i:/ poor-pea132132集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Consonants:Consonants:/p/-/b/pin-bin;/j/-/tF/yolk-choke/p/-/b/pin-bin;/j/-/tF/yolk-choke/b/-/t/bin-tin;/tF/-/dV/choke-joke/b/-/t/bin-tin;/tF/-/dV/choke-joke/t/-/d/tin-din/dV/-/f/jade-fade/t/-/d/tin-din/dV/-/f/jade-fade/d/-/k/din-kin/f/-/v/fail-veil/d/-/k/din-kin/f/-/v/fail-veil/k/-/g/coat-goat/v/-/W/heave-hearth/k/-/g/coat-goat/v/-/W/heave-hearth/g/-/h/got-hot/W/-/T/wreath-wreathe/g/-/h/got-hot/W/-/T/wreath-wreathe/h/-/m/height-might/T/-/s/though-sew/h/-/m/height-might/T/-/s/though-sew/m/-/n/might-night/s/-/z/bus-buzz/m/-/n/might-night/s/-/z/bus-buzz/n/-/N/kinking/z/-/F/zoo-shoe/n/-/N/kinking/z/-/F/zoo-shoe/N/-/l/tin-till/F/-/V/confucian-confusion/N/-/l/tin-till/F/-/V/confucian-confusion/l/-/r/led-red/V/-/t/beige-bait/l/-/r/led-red/V/-/t/beige-bait/r/-/w/lad-wad/r/-/w/lad-wad/w/-/j/wet-yet/w/-/j/wet-yetMinimal setsMinimal setsEx. Bill; drill; gillEx. Bill; drill; gill rid; rid; rig rid; rid; rig crick; creak; crook; croak crick; creak; crook; croak133133集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。KoreanbilabialstopsLookatthefollowingwordsofKorean:LookatthefollowingwordsofKorean:pph hulul grassgrasspppplawlawpulpulfirefiremubpmubplawlessnesslawlessnessIn Korean, there are In Korean, there are minimal pairsminimal pairsminimal pairsminimal pairs differing only in differing only in pph h and p. Therefore, p and p. Therefore, ph h and p must be and p must be separate phonemes.separate phonemes.However, there are However, there are no minimal pairs of p and b no minimal pairs of p and b in in the language. They are in complementary the language. They are in complementary distribution and represent allophones of the same distribution and represent allophones of the same phoneme. phoneme. 集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Table4-3:3SoundsofEnglishandKoreancomparedEnglishEnglishSoundsSoundsKoreanKoreanphonemesphonemesphonemesphonemespph h /p/ph h/ /p/p/pp/p/p/b/b/bb集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonology2.3.3phonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrules2.3.3phonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrulesBut that to come. But that to come. Shall all be done by the rule.Shall all be done by the rule. William Shakespeare, Antony and CleopatraWilliam Shakespeare, Antony and CleopatraPhonologicalrulestakephonemesastheirinputanddeterminethedistributionofitsallophones.A B/C_D136136集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。2.3.3.1assimilationAssimilationrule:aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Ex./bi:d/_/bi:m/:/i:/isnasalizedbyfollowinganasalconsonant.Tent-tenth:/n/isdentalizedbeforeadentalfricative/W/；since/sins/-sink/siNk/n/isvelarizedbeforethevelarstop/k/;137137集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonology/helps/_/eidz/:/s/isvoicedbythepreceding/helps/_/eidz/:/s/isvoicedbytheprecedingvoicedsound.voicedsound.-Dentalization,nasalization,velarizationareall-Dentalization,nasalization,velarizationarealltheinstancesofassimilation.theinstancesofassimilation.-Twopossibilitiesofassimilation:-Twopossibilitiesofassimilation:Regressiveassimilation:Regressiveassimilation:whenafollowingsoundiswhenafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecalltheprocessinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecalltheprocess;Progressiveassimilation:Progressiveassimilation:whenaprecedingsoundwhenaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,theprocessisisinfluencingafollowingsound,theprocessisknownas;knownas;-Assimilationcanoccuracrosssyllableorword-Assimilationcanoccuracrosssyllableorwordboundaries.boundaries.Ex.PanEx.PanN N N NcakecakesunsunN N N NglassglassYoucanYoucanN N N N gonow.Youcankeepthem.gonow.Youcankeepthem.138138集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。-FricativesandaffricatedinEnglishcanbe-FricativesandaffricatedinEnglishcanbeassimilatedinvoicing.assimilatedinvoicing.Fricatives:/fvszWTh/Fricatives:/fvszWTh/Affricates/tFdV/Affricates/tFdV/Ex.Ex.Fivepastfaivpa:stfaifpa:stFivepastfaivpa:stfaifpa:stLovetolQvtElQftELovetolQvtElQftEHastohAztEhAstEHastohAztEhAstEAscanbeshownEzkEnbiEskEbiAscanbeshownEzkEnbiEskEbiEdgetoedegeedVtEedVetFtEedVEdgetoedegeedVtEedVetFtEedV-devoicingisaprocessbywhichvoicedsounds-devoicingisaprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless,insuchcontextsdoesnotoccurbecomevoiceless,insuchcontextsdoesnotoccurwithothersounds(suchasstops).withothersounds(suchasstops).139139集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Inmostcases,thesoundassimilationisactuallyInmostcases,thesoundassimilationisactuallyreflectedinthespelling.reflectedinthespelling.Ex.Thenegativeprefix“in-”Ex.Thenegativeprefix“in-”Incorrect/impossible/irregular/illegalIncorrect/impossible/irregular/illegal(“n” is assimilated to different sounds when (“n” is assimilated to different sounds when occurring before different consonants.)occurring before different consonants.)-Thenwhatisphonologicalprocess?-Thenwhatisphonologicalprocess?TheprocessinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentTheprocessinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.Ineachprocess,theenvironmentsorcontexts.Ineachprocess,thechangeisconditionedortriggeredbyafollowingchangeisconditionedortriggeredbyafollowingsoundorinthecaseofprogressiveassimilation,asoundorinthecaseofprogressiveassimilation,aprecedingsound.precedingsound.-anyphonologicalprocessmusthavethree-anyphonologicalprocessmusthavethreeaspects:aspects:140140集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。A.asetofsoundstoundergotheprocess;A.asetofsoundstoundergotheprocess;B.asetofsoundsproducedbytheprocess;B.asetofsoundsproducedbytheprocess;C.asetofsituationsinwhichtheprocessapplies;C.asetofsituationsinwhichtheprocessapplies;Theprocesscanberepresentedbyanarrow:Theprocesscanberepresentedbyanarrow:/v/f/v/f/ThephonologicalruleThephonologicalrulehereisthatthevoicedhereisthatthevoicedfricativesaretransformedintocorrespondingfricativesaretransformedintocorrespondingvoicelessfricativesbeforevoicelesssegments:voicelessfricativesbeforevoicelesssegments:Voicedfricativevoiceless/_voicelessVoicedfricativevoiceless/_voiceless(theslash/specifiestheenvironmentinwhichthe(theslash/specifiestheenvironmentinwhichthechangetakesplace;theFOCUSBARhereindicateschangetakesplace;theFOCUSBARhereindicatesthepositionofthetargetsegment)thepositionofthetargetsegment)Nasalizationrule:Nasalizationrule:-nasal+nasal/_+nasal-nasal+nasal/_+nasal 141141集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Dentalizationrule:Dentalizationrule:-dental+dental/_+dental-dental+dental/_+dentalVelarizationrule:Velarizationrule:-velar+velar/_+velar-velar+velar/_+velartheFunctionofPhonologyRulestheFunctionofPhonologyRules-InputphonemicrepresentationofwordsinasentenceInputphonemicrepresentationofwordsinasentencephonologicalrulesphonologicalrulesOutputphoneticrepresentationofwordsinasentenceOutputphoneticrepresentationofwordsinasentence-142142集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Seminar:Consider the following Finnish words, do the voiced/voicelss alveolar stops tdrepresent different phonemes or are they allophones of the same phone?1. kudot failure katot roofs2. kate cover kadeenvious3. madon of a worm ratas wheel4. maton of a rug radon of a track143143集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 2 phonology Chapter 2 phonology2.3.3.2Deletionrule2.3.3.2DeletionrulePhonologicalrulesmaydeleteoraddentirePhonologicalrulesmaydeleteoraddentirephonemicsegments.Considerthefollowing:phonemicsegments.Considerthefollowing:ABABSignsignatureSignsignatureDesigndesignationDesigndesignationParadigmparadigmaticParadigmparadigmaticRule:Rule: delete g when it occurs before a final delete g when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.nasal consonant.A BA BBomb bombardierBomb bombardierCrumb crumbleCrumb crumblerule:rule: delete a word-final /b/ when it occurs delete a word-final /b/ when it occurs after an /m/.after an /m/.144144集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。2.3.3.3sequentialrules-inwhatwaythephonemesarecombined;thesoundpatternswhichdeterminedwhichphonemescanbeginaword,endawordandfolloweachother.145145集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。SequenceConstraintsEnglishhasconstraintsonwhichsoundsmayoccurnexttoanothersound.flups*lfuspsplt*sblgvd集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。SequenceconstraintsinotherlanguagesSomelanguageshavemuchmorerestrictedsyllablestructures.Japanese:V,CV,VN,CVNPolish:vzdwu alongfske resurrect 集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Exercises4-3Whichofthefollowing“sniglet”candidatescouldexistinEnglishandwhichcouldnot?ptribrtwnriznntppkssblbjulspwntpgkdspretlktomgjulen集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。2.3.3.4suprasegmentalfeatures-thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments,theaspectofspeechthatinvolvesmorethansinglesoundsegments.-Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludesyllable,stress,intonationandtone.149149集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。2.3.4.1syllableThesyllableisanimportantunitinthestudyofThesyllableisanimportantunitinthestudyofphonology.Differentlanguagespermitdifferentphonology.Differentlanguagespermitdifferentkindsofsyllables.InChinesekindsofsyllables.InChinesePutonghuaPutonghua,for,forexample,syllablestypicallyconsistofaconsonantexample,syllablestypicallyconsistofaconsonantfollowedbyavowel.Onlynasalsfollowedbyavowel.OnlynasalsLONG(LONG(龙龙龙龙) )cancanoccurafterthevowelandtherearenoconsonantoccurafterthevowelandtherearenoconsonantclusters.ThisiswhytheEnglishmonosyllabicclusters.ThisiswhytheEnglishmonosyllabicwordwordpleasepleaseisoftenpronouncedasisoftenpronouncedaspulisipulisibybyChinesewhoarebeginningtolearnEnglish.ChinesewhoarebeginningtolearnEnglish.150150集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Twotypesofsyllable:Twotypesofsyllable:Monosyllable/polysyllableMonosyllable/polysyllableSyllabicstructure:Syllabicstructure:SyllableSyllable O(nset)R(hyme)O(nset)R(hyme)N(ucleus)Co(da)N(ucleus)Co(da)claspclaspAllsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutnotallsyllablescontainAllsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutnotallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.anonsetandacoda. Opensyllable_asyllablethathasnocoda;Opensyllable_asyllablethathasnocoda;Closedsyllable_asyllablewithcoda;Closedsyllable_asyllablewithcoda;151151集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。SyllablestructureEnglishsyllablesallowmanyvariationsofconsonant-vowel(CV)combinations:goCVnVCdudCVCntVCCCkwinCCVCpstCVCCtrndCVCCCskwrtsCCCVCCC集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。In English, there are both closed and open syllables but only tense vowels (long vowels and diphthongs) can occur in stressed open syllables. Differences in syllable structure also exist cross-linguistically. In English, the onset position may be empty or filled by a cluster of as many as three consonants, while the coda position may be filled by as many as four consonants (as in sixths ). For this matter, the English syllable may be represented as (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C). 153153集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。The Chinese syllable, however, allows at most one consonant in the onset position and only nasals in the coda for the Putonghua. Thus the Standard Chinese syllable is represented as (C)V(C).154154集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。2.3.4.2stress2.3.4.2stress-referstothedegreeofforceusedinproducing-referstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.asyllable.WordstressandsentencestressWordstressandsentencestressA.wordstressA.wordstressa.thestressisplacedsometimesondifferenta.thestressisplacedsometimesondifferentsyllableforthedifferentgrammaticalfunctionssyllableforthedifferentgrammaticalfunctionsthewordplays;thewordplays;Subject:letschangethesubjectofthemeeting.Subject:letschangethesubjectofthemeeting.Subject:Hellsubjectustocriticism.Subject:Hellsubjectustocriticism.Refuse:myrefuseupsetshim.Refuse:myrefuseupsetshim.Refuse:herefusedtoacceptmyidea.Refuse:herefusedtoacceptmyidea.b.shiftofstressoccursinthecompoundedwords.b.shiftofstressoccursinthecompoundedwords.hot-doghotdoghot-doghotdog155155集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。WhitehousewhitehouseWhitehousewhitehouseTightropetightropeTightropetightropeB.sentencestressB.sentencestressMarysyoungbrotherwantedfiftychocolatepeanuts.Marysyoungbrotherwantedfiftychocolatepeanuts.2.3.4.3toneandintonation2.3.4.3toneandintonationTonearepitchvariations,whicharecausedbytheTonearepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.differingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage.Englishisnotatonelanguage.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofWhenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.wordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight-thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement;forward,matter-of-factstatement;therisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid;therisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid;thefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.messageinwhatissaid.Rise-falltoneisnotsofrequentlyused;Rise-falltoneisnotsofrequentlyused;156156集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter 3 Morphology A word is deadA word is dead When it is said, When it is said, Some say. Some say. I say it just I say it just Begins to live Begins to live That day. That day._Emily Dickinson, “A Word”Emily Dickinson, “A Word”157157集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter3MorphologyChapter3Morphology3.1morphology3.1morphologyThestudyoftheinsidestructuresofwordsandtherulesofwordThestudyoftheinsidestructuresofwordsandtherulesofwordformation.formation.Ex.UnbreakableEx.Unbreakable3.1.1whatisword?3.1.1whatisword?+453,000entries+453,000entries(Websters third international Dictionary of the English Language)(Websters third international Dictionary of the English Language) 13,000words(achildof6)13,000words(achildof6)60,000words(highschoolgraduate)60,000words(highschoolgraduate)Toknowawordmeanstoknow:Toknowawordmeanstoknow:1)spelling;2)the“standard”pronunciation3)definitionsto1)spelling;2)the“standard”pronunciation3)definitionstorepresentmeanings4)partsofspeech(lexicalcategories)representmeanings4)partsofspeech(lexicalcategories)3.1.2divisionofaword:3.1.2divisionofaword:Contentwords/functionwordsContentwords/functionwords158158集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3MorphologyContentwordsContentwords : :thewordscarryingmeanings,suchasnouns,thewordscarryingmeanings,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,negativeauxiliaries;verbs,adjectives,adverbs,negativeauxiliaries;denotesconceptasobjects,actions,attributesdenotesconceptasobjects,actions,attributesandideas;andideas;sometimescalledsometimescalledopenclass,openclass,becausewecanbecausewecanandregularlydoaddnewwordstotheseandregularlydoaddnewwordstotheseclasses.classes.Functionwords:Functionwords:wordsforcorrectgrammar,includingwordsforcorrectgrammar,includingpronouns,prepositions,articles,conjunctions,pronouns,prepositions,articles,conjunctions,auxiliaryverbs;“tobe”asamainverb;auxiliaryverbs;“tobe”asamainverb;noclearlexicalmeaningorobviousconceptsnoclearlexicalmeaningorobviousconceptsbuthaveagrammaticalfunction;buthaveagrammaticalfunction;alsocalledalsocalledclosedclassclosedclass;newwordsare;newwordsareseldomaddedtothem;seldomaddedtothem;159159集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3MorphologyDifferences:Differences:Count the number of Fs in the following:Count the number of Fs in the following:FINISHED FILES ARE THEFINISHED FILES ARE THERESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFICRESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFICSTUDY COMBINED WITH THE STUDY COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF YEARS.EXPERIENCE OF YEARS.Content wordsContent words have semantic content (meaning); have semantic content (meaning); Function wordsFunction words play a grammatical role, connecting words play a grammatical role, connecting words to the larger grammatical context;to the larger grammatical context;3.1.2 morphemes3.1.2 morphemesDefinition: the minimal unit of meaning.Definition: the minimal unit of meaning.Ex. Schoolboy _ school + boyEx. Schoolboy _ school + boy beautifully _ beauti + ful + ly beautifully _ beauti + ful + ly boys _ boy + s boys _ boy + s160160集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3MorphologySeminar:analyzethefollowing:A.techniqueB.morphologymorph-+ologyC.unladylikenoneofthemorphemescanbebrokenupanymorewithoutlosingallsenseofmeaning;eachsyllablehasnomeaningonitsown.161161集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。3.1.3.typesofmorphemes3.1.3.1freemorphemesandboundmorphemes3.1.3.1freemorphemesandboundmorphemesFreemorphemesFreemorphemes:themorphemesthatcanstandalone:themorphemesthatcanstandaloneaswords.aswords.Freemorphemescanbefurtherdividedintotwosub-Freemorphemescanbefurtherdividedintotwosub-groups:groups:Contentmorphemesandfunctionalmorphemes(seetheContentmorphemesandfunctionalmorphemes(seethesectionabove)sectionabove)BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemes:themorphemesthatmustbe:themorphemesthatmustbeattachedtoahost(free)morpheme.Theycantstandattachedtoahost(free)morpheme.Theycantstandaloneasawordbutapartofaword.aloneasawordbutapartofaword.Suchas:-ing,-tionSuchas:-ing,-tionTosaythatamorphemecanbeusedasaword,wemeanTosaythatamorphemecanbeusedasaword,wemeanthatthismorphemecanbeusedindependentlyinathatthismorphemecanbeusedindependentlyinasentenceforcommunication.sentenceforcommunication.162162集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3Morphology Ex.beautifullyEx.beautifullybeautybeauty+ful+lyful+lyFreemorphemeboundmorphemesFreemorphemeboundmorphemes3.1.2.2rootsandaffixes3.1.2.2rootsandaffixes1)Roots1)Roots:isthebasicpartofawordwhichcannotbe:isthebasicpartofawordwhichcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerbutstillmeaningfulunits.furtherdividedintosmallerbutstillmeaningfulunits.Ex.“opener”_“open”isthebasicmeaningoftheEx.“opener”_“open”isthebasicmeaningoftheword,calledword,called“root”;“root”;_“er”justaddsoraltersthemeaningof_“er”justaddsoraltersthemeaningoftheroottosometheroottosomeextent;calledextent;called“affix”“affix”;Rootsareusuallyfreemorphemes;theycanalsobeRootsareusuallyfreemorphemes;theycanalsobeboundmorphemes.boundmorphemes.suchas“ceive”indeceive,suchas“ceive”indeceive,perceive,receive;“tain”incontain,retainanddetain.perceive,receive;“tain”incontain,retainanddetain.163163集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3Morphology2)Affix:isthecollectivetermforthetypeofmorphemesthatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Affixesbelongtothetypeofboundmorphemes.3) Classification of affixes:3) Classification of affixes:With reference to the function, affixes are grouped into two With reference to the function, affixes are grouped into two types:types:Inflectional affixesInflectional affixes: when adding an inflectional affix to a : when adding an inflectional affix to a bound morpheme, it forms tense, number, case, and so bound morpheme, it forms tense, number, case, and so forth;forth;They never change the semantic meaning of the wordsThey never change the semantic meaning of the words-s / 3rd person singular present -en, -ed / past participle-s / 3rd person singular present -en, -ed / past participle-ed / past tense -s / plural morpheme -s / -ed / past tense -s / plural morpheme -s / possessive possessive -ing / progressive -er / comparative -est / -ing / progressive -er / comparative -est / superlativesuperlative164164集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Derivational affixes: when adding an derivational affix, the part of speech as well as a new meaning of a word to which it is attached is derived. They normally will change the meaning or part of speech of words.Ex. unkindly / kindnessWith reference to position, derivational morphemes are classified into prefix; suffix; inffix ( in English , no inffix available)165165集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3MorphologyMajordifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixesMajordifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixesSeminar:Seminar: Discusstheaffix“-ing”in“painting”inthefollowingDiscusstheaffix“-ing”in“painting”inthefollowingsentences.sentences.1)shespaintingthegirl.1)shespaintingthegirl.2)Idontlikethatsmallpainting.2)Idontlikethatsmallpainting.3)shehastakenuppainting.3)shehastakenuppainting.inflectionalinflectionalderivationalderivationalfunctionfunctionMarkgrammaticalrelationsMarkgrammaticalrelationsandnevercauseachangeinandnevercauseachangeingrammaticalclass,ormeaninggrammaticalclass,ormeaningofwordsofwordsCreatenewwordsCreatenewwordsandveryoftencauseaandveryoftencauseachangeinchangeingrammaticalclassgrammaticalclasspositionpositionSuffixes;alwaysafterSuffixes;alwaysafterderivationalaffixesifbotharederivationalaffixesifbotharepresentpresentPrefixedorsuffixes;Prefixedorsuffixes;alwaysbeforealwaysbeforeinflectionalsuffixesifinflectionalsuffixesifbotharepresentbotharepresent166166集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Base,rootAffixes attach to a base. If there is nothing already attached to that base, it is the root.VNVNVafVafVafVafNafafVNafafVhospitalizeedreexamineationhospitalizeedreexamineationRoot/baserootRoot/baserootbasebasebasebase167167集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3MorphologyClassification of English morphemesClassification of English morphemes morphemebound morphemefree morphemeAffix morphemerootOpen class (content words)Closed class(function words)derivational inflectionalprefixsuffixsuffix168168集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。allomorphAmorphememayvaryinitspreciseformorAmorphememayvaryinitspreciseformorpronunciation,thoughwerecognizeitasessentially“thepronunciation,thoughwerecognizeitasessentially“thesame”.same”.Inaudible, inept, intolerant, indescribable, infallible, Inaudible, inept, intolerant, indescribable, infallible, incompetent, impossible, immovable illegible, illegal, incompetent, impossible, immovable illegible, illegal, irregular, irreducibleirregular, irreducibleThisvariationissometimespredictablebasedonThisvariationissometimespredictablebasedonadjacentsounds,asinthevariousformsofadjacentsounds,asinthevariousformsofin-.in-.destruction, affixation, multiplicationdestruction, affixation, multiplicationThe cases of -(a) tiom are idiosyncratic: The cases of -(a) tiom are idiosyncratic: compute+ compute+ ationation, but complete + , but complete + tiontion. .Spellings are also changed by affixation processes:Spellings are also changed by affixation processes:In +describe + able; compute + ation (final “e” is dripped)In +describe + able; compute + ation (final “e” is dripped)169169集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalStructureMorphemesareorganizedinhighlypatternedways.Theyhaveanobviouslinearorderandalsoalayeredstructure.Anassemblylineforwords:writewriterwriters170170集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalStructureAnassemblylineforwords:writewriterwritersorwritewriterwritersVNVVNN171171集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalStructureMoreexamplesofhierarchicalstructures:widening172172集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalStructureMoreexamplesofhierarchicalstructures: wideningAdj173173集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalStructureMoreexamplesofhierarchicalstructures:wideningAdjV174174集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalStructureMoreexamplesofhierarchicalstructures:wideningAdjVV175175集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalStructureMoreexamplesofhierarchicalstructures:unpleasantness176176集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalStructureMoreexamplesofhierarchicalstructures:unpleasantnessAdj177177集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalStructureMoreexamplesofhierarchicalstructures: unpleasantness unpleasantnessAdjNNAdjAdjN178178集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。AreviewWhichiscorrect?unpremeditated unpremeditated unpremeditatedunpremeditated unpremeditated unpremeditatedVVVAdjAdjAdjVVVAdjAdjAdj179179集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。AreviewWhichiscorrect?reexaminable reexaminablereexaminable reexaminablere-_+Vre X=Xagain-ableV+_Xable=abletobeXedVVAdjAdjAdjV180180集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalstructuresLinearorderofmorphemesl lun-pre-meditat-edun-pre-meditat-ed (not*pre-un-ed-meditate)(not*pre-un-ed-meditate)Hierarchicalorderinternalgroupingsl l(un-(pre-meditate)ed)(un-(pre-meditate)ed)181181集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Howdoesalanguageincreaseitsvocabulary?Languageshavethreeprincipalwaysofextendingtheirvocabulary:NewwordscanbeformedfromexistingwordsandwordpartsWordscanbe“borrowed”fromanotherlanguageNewwordscanbemadeup,createdfromscratch182182集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3Morphology3.2morphologicalrulesofwordformation3.2morphologicalrulesofwordformation3waystoextendvocabulary:3waystoextendvocabulary:Loanwords/creatingentirelynewwords/formingnewwordsLoanwords/creatingentirelynewwords/formingnewwordsfromexistingmorphemesorwordsfromexistingmorphemesorwordsword-formationprocess:word-formationprocess:3.2.1compounding3.2.1compoundingAprocessofwordformation,inwhichtwoormoremorphemesAprocessofwordformation,inwhichtwoormoremorphemesareputtogethertoformacompoundword.areputtogethertoformacompoundword.Two-wordcompoundsTwo-wordcompounds: :NounsadjectivesverbsNounsadjectivesverbsbackpack(n.+n.)deepblue(a.+a.)blackmail(a.+v.)backpack(n.+n.)deepblue(a.+a.)blackmail(a.+v.)Braincancer(n.+n.)nationwide(n.+a.)overhear(prep.+v.)Braincancer(n.+n.)nationwide(n.+a.)overhear(prep.+v.)E-mail(a.+n.)overripe(ad.+a.)dryclean(a.+v.)E-mail(a.+n.)overripe(ad.+a.)dryclean(a.+v.)3-wordcompounds:3-wordcompounds:Out-of-datemaster-of-ceremonymother-in-lawOut-of-datemaster-of-ceremonymother-in-law4-wordcompounds:4-wordcompounds:over-the-counter-drugsone-child-one-couple-driveover-the-counter-drugsone-child-one-couple-drive183183集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3MorphologyTypesofcompounds:Typesofcompounds:Opencompound:Opencompound:consistingoftwoormorewordsconsistingoftwoormorewordswrittenseparately,suchassaladdressing,Bostonterrier,writtenseparately,suchassaladdressing,Bostonterrier,bigwheel,sugardaddybigwheel,sugardaddyHyphenatedcompound:Hyphenatedcompound:wordsconnectedbyahyphen,wordsconnectedbyahyphen,suchasage-old,force-feed,big-wig,turn-coatsuchasage-old,force-feed,big-wig,turn-coatSolidcompound:Solidcompound:consistingoftwowordsthatareconsistingoftwowordsthatarewrittenasoneword,suchaskeyboard,typewriter,writtenasoneword,suchaskeyboard,typewriter,overhear,troublemakeroverhear,troublemakercompoundingisclaimedtobeamoreproductivecompoundingisclaimedtobeamoreproductiveprocessofwordformationoramajorwaytoformnewprocessofwordformationoramajorwaytoformnewwords.words.3.2.2derivation3.2.2derivationAprocessofwordformation,inwhichoneormoreAprocessofwordformation,inwhichoneormoreaffixesareattachedtoaroottoproduceanewwordaffixesareattachedtoaroottoproduceanewwordknownasderivedwords.knownasderivedwords.184184集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3MorphologyDerivation is also called affixation. Derivation is also called affixation. Two principle ways of adding morphemes:Two principle ways of adding morphemes: prefixationprefixation : un-, non-, dis-, de- (negatives) ; ex-; : un-, non-, dis-, de- (negatives) ; ex-; anti-; en- anti-; en- suffixation suffixation: -er, -ee, -ist, -ese, -eer (agentive) : -er, -ee, -ist, -ese, -eer (agentive) -ness; ish; -less -ness; ish; -less Seminar:Seminar: Is “hospitable” composed of “hospit” and “- Is “hospitable” composed of “hospit” and “-able”? able”? 3.2.3 conversion3.2.3 conversionAlso known as Also known as zero-derivationzero-derivation or or functional shiftfunctional shift. .A process of word formation, in which a word of one part of A process of word formation, in which a word of one part of speech is shifted into a word of another part of speech speech is shifted into a word of another part of speech without using any affix.without using any affix.The general categories of conversion as follows:The general categories of conversion as follows:N. _ v. A piece of butter/ butter the breadN. _ v. A piece of butter/ butter the bread sew a button / button a suit sew a button / button a suitv._ n. answer the letter / an answer to the letterv._ n. answer the letter / an answer to the letter185185集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3MorphologyAdj. _ v. much better / better the conditionAdj. _ v. much better / better the condition dirty coat / dirty the floor dirty coat / dirty the floorAdj. _ n. Poor life / the poorAdj. _ n. Poor life / the poorAdv. (prep./ participle) _ v. Up the hillAdv. (prep./ participle) _ v. Up the hill3.2.4 other ways of word- formation3.2.4 other ways of word- formation3.2.4.1 blending3.2.4.1 blendingBy combining parts of existing words;By combining parts of existing words;1) first part of the first word+ last part of the second word1) first part of the first word+ last part of the second word motel _ motor + hotel smog _ smoke + fog motel _ motor + hotel smog _ smoke + fog brunch _ breakfast + lunch brunch _ breakfast + lunch2) first part of the first word + first part of the second word2) first part of the first word + first part of the second word sci-fi _ science + fiction sci-fi _ science + fiction interpol _ international + police interpol _ international + police comsat _ communication + satellite comsat _ communication + satellite186186集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3Morphology3)wholeformofthefirstword+lastpartofthesecondword3)wholeformofthefirstword+lastpartofthesecondwordSlimnastics_slim+gymnasticsSlimnastics_slim+gymnasticsnewscast_news+castnewscast_news+cast4)firstpartofthefirstword+wholeformofthesecondword4)firstpartofthefirstword+wholeformofthesecondwordmedicare_medical+caremedicare_medical+careparatroops_parachute+troopsparatroops_parachute+troopsheliport_helicopter+portheliport_helicopter+port3.2.4.2clipping3.2.4.2clippingAprocessthatshortensawordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.Aprocessthatshortensawordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.Fourcategories:Fourcategories:1)backclippings(thedeletionmayoccurattheendofaword)1)backclippings(thedeletionmayoccurattheendofaword)Advertisement_adautomobile_autoAdvertisement_adautomobile_autoDormitory_dormlaboratory_labDormitory_dormlaboratory_lab187187集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3Morphology2)frontclippings2)frontclippingsparachute_chuteomnibus_busparachute_chuteomnibus_bus3)frontandbackclippings(notacommontypeof3)frontandbackclippings(notacommontypeofclippings)clippings)influenza_flurefrigerator_fridgeinfluenza_flurefrigerator_fridgefacsimilefaxfacsimilefax4)phraseclippings4)phraseclippingspopularmusic_poppopularmusic_pop3.2.4.3acronym3.2.4.3acronymAcronymarewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofAcronymarewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofeachwordandpronouncedasaword.eachwordandpronouncedasaword.OPEC:OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountriesOPEC:OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountriesTOEFL:TestofEnglishasaForeignLanguageTOEFL:TestofEnglishasaForeignLanguageWHO:WorldHealthOrganizationWHO:WorldHealthOrganizationLaser:lightwaveamplificationbystimulatedemissionofLaser:lightwaveamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiationradiation188188集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Chapter3MorphologyChapter3Morphology3.2.4.4 back-formation3.2.4.4 back-formationBackformation is a word formation process which creates a Backformation is a word formation process which creates a new word by removing a real or a thought-to-be (supposed) new word by removing a real or a thought-to-be (supposed) affix from an existing word in the language.affix from an existing word in the language.Generally speaking, the shorter form will be regarded as the Generally speaking, the shorter form will be regarded as the father of the longer one, such as “ writer” is derived from father of the longer one, such as “ writer” is derived from “write”; but in back formation, the longer form usually the “write”; but in back formation, the longer form usually the father of the shorter one.father of the shorter one.Baby-sit are “back formed” by babysitter;Baby-sit are “back formed” by babysitter;Concord is derived from “concordance”;Concord is derived from “concordance”;Donation _ donate; television_ televise; greed_ greedyDonation _ donate; television_ televise; greed_ greedyBeggar_ beg; peddle_ peddler; edit _ editorBeggar_ beg; peddle_ peddler; edit _ editor189189集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalAnalysisPersiandanadanawisewisedanaidanai wisdomwisdomxubxubgood good xubixubigoodnessgoodnessbozorg bozorg bigbigborzorgi borzorgi sizesize190190集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。MorphologicalAnalysisAnalyzetheTurkishnounsbelowandprovidealistoftheirconstituentmorphemes,alongwithaglossforeach.(note:irepresentsavowelsimilartou) Kitap“book”clamlar “apples”saplar “stalks”at “horse”masa “table”adamlar “men”oda “room”odalar “rooms”masalar“tables”sap “stalk”atlar “horses”sonlar “ends”elma “apple”kiz “girl”meyvar“fruit”(sg.)a.Onthebasisofyouranalysis,providetheTurkishwordsforthefollowingEnglishones:b.Books=man=girls=c.end=fruit(pl.)=b.GivenTurkishodalardo“intherooms”andmasalarda“onthetables”.ProvidetheTurkishwordsthatmean“inthebooks”and“onthehorse”.c.Inthebooks=onthehorse=kitaplaradamkizlarsonmeyvarlarkitaplardoatda191191集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。SummaryAmorphemeisaminimallinguisticunitthathasaAmorphemeisaminimallinguisticunitthathasameaningorgrammaticalfunctionassociatedwithit.meaningorgrammaticalfunctionassociatedwithit.Wordscancontainasinglemorpheme(camel,swim)orWordscancontainasinglemorpheme(camel,swim)orseveral(bookshops,premeditation);several(bookshops,premeditation);Inthementallexicon,eachmorphemecontainsInthementallexicon,eachmorphemecontainsinformationaboutsounds,relatedwords,phrasalco-informationaboutsounds,relatedwords,phrasalco-occurrencepatterns,andmeaning;occurrencepatterns,andmeaning;FreemorphemesarethosethatcanoccurasFreemorphemesarethosethatcanoccurasindependentwords:CAR,HOUSE,FOR;independentwords:CAR,HOUSE,FOR;BoundmorphemscannotoccurasindependentwordsBoundmorphemscannotoccurasindependentwordsbutmustbeattachedtoanothermorpheme(CAR+-s;butmustbeattachedtoanothermorpheme(CAR+-s;LOOK+-ed;ESTABLISH+-ment);LOOK+-ed;ESTABLISH+-ment);BoundmorphemescanmarknounsforinformationlikeBoundmorphemescanmarknounsforinformationlikenumber(eg.PLURAL)andcase(eg.POSSESSIVE)ornumber(eg.PLURAL)andcase(eg.POSSESSIVE)orverbsforinformationliketense(eg.PAST)andpersonverbsforinformationliketense(eg.PAST)andperson(eg.“THIRDPERSON”)(eg.“THIRDPERSON”)192192集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。BoundmorphemescanderivedifferentwordsfromBoundmorphemescanderivedifferentwordsfromexistingmorphemes,eg.UN(-untrue;DIS-displease;existingmorphemes,eg.UN(-untrue;DIS-displease;MENT-commitment);MENT-commitment);Boundmorphemescanbeaffixes(prefixesorsuffixes),Boundmorphemescanbeaffixes(prefixesorsuffixes),infixes;infixes;Inwords,morphemeshavesignificantlinearandInwords,morphemeshavesignificantlinearandhierarchicalstructures;hierarchicalstructures;ThearrayofmorphologicalprocessesforincreasingaThearrayofmorphologicalprocessesforincreasingalanguageswordstockmayincludecompounding,languageswordstockmayincludecompounding,reduplication,affixationandshortening;reduplication,affixationandshortening;LanguagesborrowwordsfromotherlanguagesandLanguagesborrowwordsfromotherlanguagesandsoonerorlatersubmittheborrowedwordsintheirownsoonerorlatersubmittheborrowedwordsintheirownpronunciationpatternsandmorphologicalprocesses.pronunciationpatternsandmorphologicalprocesses.193193集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。Synchronicvs.diachronic194194集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 Linguistics Chapter 1 Linguisticssingularpluralsingularplural1ststage:fotfoti1ststage:fotfotitotoItotoIgosgosigosgosi2ndstage:fotfeti2ndstage:fotfetitoteitoteigosgesigosgesi3rdstage:fotfet3rdstage:fotfettotetotegosgesgosgesModernEnglishfootfeetModernEnglishfootfeettoothteethtoothteethgoosegeesegoosegeese195195集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 Linguistics Chapter 1 LinguisticsEx.1 Old Middle ModernEx.1 Old Middle Modern leorn-ian lern-en learn leorn-ian lern-en learn sun-ne sun-ne sun sun-ne sun-ne sunEx.2 Old Middle ModernEx.2 Old Middle Modern name /na:ma:/ /na:m / /neim/ name /na:ma:/ /na:m / /neim/ knee /kni:/ /kni:/ /ni:/ knee /kni:/ /kni:/ /ni:/Ex.3 Ex.3 In old and middle English, in the word knight both /k/ and In old and middle English, in the word knight both /k/ and /n/ were pronounced. /n/ were pronounced. some unstressed vowels some unstressed vowels laboratory /l laboratory /lb brtri/ /lbrtri/rtri/ /lbrtri/ postscript postscript /pustskript/ /pusskript/ /pustskript/ /pusskript/ Old meaning New meaning Old meaning New meaning disease any unfavourable state an illness disease any unfavourable state an illness meat any type of food flesh of an animal meat any type of food flesh of an animal196196集成电路是采用半导体制作工艺，在一块较小的单晶硅片上制作上许多晶体管及电阻器、电容器等元器件，按照多层布线或遂道布线的方法将元器件组合成完整的电子电路，因其管脚非常密集，所以非常容易造成虚焊.脱焊等原因故障率较高。 Chapter 1 LinguisticsChapter 1 Linguistics1). Criteria1). CriteriaObservational AdequacyObservational AdequacyDescriptive AdequacyDescriptive AdequacyExplanatory AdequacyExplanatory Adequacy Ex. Language data observed:Ex. Language data observed: Mommy sock Mommy sock All gone sticky All gone sticky All gone outside All gone outsideFinding: in the early age, children use many small Finding: in the early age, children use many small “content words”, usually no inflections, no articles “content words”, usually no inflections, no articles or prep. or prep. LanguageLanguage: : Linguistics studies the general Linguistics studies the general languagelanguage197197