第一讲 词类、句子词类分为实词和虚词.实词可以单独在句子中作成分，而虚词则不可以.虚词冠词:用在名词前帮助说明其意义,如不定冠词a, an 只用于可数名词单数前,表示“一个”或“ 每一个”,定冠词the可用在各类名词前,包 括单数、复数可数名词及不可数名词前.如例句:The water is cool. The student is mine. The students are mine.介词:用在名词、代词等前面,表示 与别的词的关系,如at,in,for连词:用来连接词与词或句与句，如 and，but，if实词实词名词:表示人或事物名称,如girl,table,flower动词:表示动作或状态,如run,smile,stay数词:表示数目或顺序,如two,first代词:用来代替名词或数词等,如they,this,some. 例句:He is my colleage/student/. Please read your books.形容词:用来修饰动词或代词,如beautiful,little,bad 例句:The man is my brather. The tall man is my brother.副词:用来修饰动词、形容词或副词,如very,slowly. 例:We are listening to the teacher. We are listening to the teacher carefully. We are listening to the teacher happily.例句: The basketball player is tallThey are tall.They are very tall.They are very very tall.单词根据词义和 在句子中的作用分为以下10种词类作用例词名词表示人或事物名称Girl table flower数词表示数目或顺序twe first 代词用来代替名词或数词等they this some动词表示动作或状态run smile stay形容词用来修饰名词或代词beautiful little 副词用来修饰动词，形容词或副词very slowly冠词用在名词前帮助说明意义a an the介词用在名词，代词等前面，表示与别的词的关系at in for from连词用来连接词与词或句与句oh hi hello实 词 虚 词 句子 什么是句子:表达思想的基本单位. 句子成分:主要成分:主语、谓语. 主语句子主要讲述的人或物. 谓语说明主语的动作或状态. 其他成分：宾语、定语、状语等. 宾语动作的作用对象或承者. 定语修饰名词或代词. 状语主要修饰动词或表明事情发生的况. 表语就是主语补足语.最基本的句子结构：主语+谓语n主语+实意动词+(宾语)主语谓语宾语状语WestudyEnglish.Hehasa beautiful shirt.John and IwentTo school(地点)this morning(时间).主 联系动词 表语谓语部分主语系动词（be）表语I ama techer. He is tall and strong.The ice-cream isnice.句子成分与词类：1.主语主语+实意动词实意动词+（宾语（宾语）主语（定语） 谓语（状语）宾语（定语） 状语名词形容词数词代词动词副词名词形容词数词代词介词副词2主主 联系动词联系动词 表语表语 主语 (定语) 系动词表语 ( 定语) 状语名词 形容词数词代词 be:am,s,are表情况: 感官动词 ： feel，sound， look表变化:get,grow, become,turn形容词 形容词名词副词 介词 副词第三节第三节 句子分类句子分类1.按句子功能划分 a. 陈述句(statements)-陈述一个事实表明 一个愿望,猜测等;形式是主语先行.如： The bank closes at six. I wish you success. b.问句(questions)提出问题,请对方回 答;式是助动词/情态动词/疑问词行: 问句主要分为四类： *一般疑问句(general questions):以助动词, 情态动词或be开头,一般由yes或no回答； Will you be free tonight? *反意疑问句(tag-questions):由一个陈述句和一个简 短问句组成.前后两部分时态、语态要一致.如果前面 部分是肯定句,简短问句用否定形式;前面部分是否定 句,简短问句用肯定形式.回答时针对客观事实,肯定回 答用yes,否定用no.如： Youve been here for many years,havent you? This is your car,isnt it? *特殊疑问句(special questions):也称wh-questions 多以疑问词who,where,when,which,whose,why, how 等开头： Who is it on the phone? Where have you been?*祈使句(imperatives)-提出命令、请求等；形式是动词原形先行,主语省略:Open the window ,please.*感叹句(exclamations)表示赞美、惊异 等情绪;形式是修饰性短语,后接主语及“be”. 主语及“be”可省略： What a nice day! How silly(you are)! *选择疑问句(alternative questions):提出两种可能,看哪一种属实.并列部分由or连接： 第二讲动词n概述n时态n语态n语气n助动词、情态动词概述1.动词的种类:*及物动词:这类动词一般后接宾语.*不及物动词:这类动词一般没有宾语,如要接宾语,必须和一定的介词一起使用.*系动词:不能表达一个完整的意思,必须加上一个表明主语身份或状态的表语构成复合谓语.*助动词:本身没有特别的意思,在句中和别的动词一起构成时态、语态、问句及否定句.*情态动词:有一定的意思,表示“能愿”等,和句中其他动词一起表达完整意义,一般没有人称和时态的变化,后动词要用原形.例句：IcanspeakEnglish.Canyoureadaletterforme?动词的作用动词在句中用作谓语,受句子主语、时态、语态、语气的限制,随具体情况变化而变化,称作动词的限定形式(finiteforms)。*与主语一致:人称一致;数上一致：Iknowthat./Sheknowsthat.Heisadoctor./Theyaredoctors./Iamadoctor.*时态:英语中事情发生的时间不仅用状语体现，句中动词也要以各种特定的形式体现时态:Iwenttoschoolyesterday.Igotoschooleveryday.Illgotoschooltomorrow.*时态:英语中事情发生的时间不仅用状语体现,句中动词也要以各种特定的形式体现时态:Everybodyloveshim.Heislovedbyeverybody.*语气:按照话语与事实情况的关系,可分为陈述、祈使、虚拟语气:Heiscareless.(陈述语气）Becareful.(祈使语气）Iwishheweremorecareful.（虚拟语气）英语中不同时间发生的动作要用不同的形式表示,称为时态.理论上讲一共有十六种:一般时态进行时态完成时态完成进行时态现在一般现在时现在进行时现在完成时现在完成进行时过去一般过去时过去进行时过去完成时过去完成进行时将来一般将来时将来进行时将来完成时将来完成进行时过 去将来过去一般将来时过去将来进行时过去将来完成时过去将来完成进行时状态时间状态以动词write为例，各时态构成如下表：一般时态进行时态完成时态完成进行时态现在writewritesamarewritingishavewrittenhashavebeenwritinghas过去wrotewas/werewritinghadwrittenhadbeenwriting将来willwritewillbewritingwillhavewrittenwill have beenwritten过 去将来wouldwritewouldbewritingwouldhavewrittenwouldhavebeenwritten 几种常用时态一般现在时(the simple presenttense)do/does *经常发生或反复发生的动作：She visits her parents every day.He smokes a lot.She doesnt speak English. *现时的情况或状态： I know you are busy. How do you like this city?*永恒的真理：The moon goes round the earth.Summer follows spring. 现在进行时:be(am/is/are)+doing*主要表示现在正在进行的动作：Theyre talking;theyre not working.Were havingameeting.Werehavingalecture.*有时汉语中相应的句子不带“正在”,英语也要用进行时态：Howare yougetting onwiththework?Youre makinggoodprogress.Whoareyou waitingfor?*表示在这个阶段正在发生的事(但说话的一刻不一定正在进行)：Are youstaying atahotel? *表示将要发生的事,各种人称后都由will加动词原形构成,常缩略为“ll”.Shall用于第一人称,但 陈述句中更多的人使用will ： *常用于下面情况，不一定指将来的事情： a.用于I think (dont think)will这类句型中： I think Ill have something to eat. I dont think Ill go out tonight. b.提出请求： Will you shut the door? Will you lend me the car next week? Mail the letter today, will you?c.作出允诺：If I have any trouble,Ill let you know.I wont tell anybody what happened.d.表示同意: Comeandseemetomorrow._Yes,I will._No, I wont.e.表示“不肯”、“不能”等: f.shall通常用于疑问句，来征求对方的意见(第一人称): *一般将来时的其他表示方法：a. be going to准备、打算要做某事;看来就要发生的事(预计或不可避免): Im going to clean the room this afternoon.b. be + to do将要或必然要发生的事：Theyre to call me on Sunday. c.be + doing 常用于 “come, go, leave”等词：He is coming.Im leaving. Hurry,hurry up,Im coming.d. be about to即将、打算: 一般过去时：did*表示过去发生的事: I saw you two days ago. I went to the cinema last night. Did you enjoy the film? *日常对话中这个时态用得很多,即使在前 一分钟发生的事也要用过去时: I saw her a minute ago. Who told youthis? *过去习惯性的动作: We often played together when we were children. Sometimes we quarreled.*不明显的过去时间状语: I was glad to get your letter. How did you like the film?*谈及已故的人时(名人情况可用一般现在时)： Luxun was a great writer. 过去进行时:be(was/were)+doing 表示过去某个时刻正在进行的事，相当 于现在进行时的过去形式. What were you doing when I called you? What were you doing at three oclock yesterday? 现在完成时：have/has + done *现在完成时把过去和现在联系起来，谈的是已经发生的事，但和现在有某种关系，指从过去某时到现在，某事已经完成或已经发生。 Ive lost my passport.*常和just,already,yet这类词连用,表示刚发生的事: Ive just had my lunch. Ive already posted your letters.*有时表示从过去到现在这一段时间内发生的事:Weve planted thousands of trees in the past few years. Ive been there twice this year. *有时表示持续到现在的状态：How have you been?*有时表示持续到现在的状态： How have you been?* 过去完成时：had + done*表示过去某时之前业已发生的动作（可算是现在完成时的过去形式） Had you ever seen her before that? By 9:30 she still hadnt arrived.语态语态(Voice)语态由谓语动词和主语的关系决定.如果主语是动作的执行者,动词就要用主动语态;如果是动作的承受者,动词就要用被动语态.前面我们介绍时态时所用的基本上是主动语态形式,现在主要介绍被动语态的构成与应用。被动语态构成:be+done +(by)be动词可以有时态、人称等的变化.by结构表示动作的执行者。一般时态进行时态完成时态现在amisgivenareamisbeinggivenarehasbeengivenhave过去wasgivenwerewasbeinggivenwerehadbeengiven将来shallbegivenwillshallhavebeengivenwill过去将来shouldbegivenwouldshouldhavebeengivenwould被动语态的形式：被动语态的应用一般说来,能用主动语态时尽量使用主动语态.在下面情况下需要用被动结构:*不知道或不想提动作的执行者是谁：The meeting is scheduled for May 3rd.*谈话的重心为动作的承受者： I was waken up by a loud noise.*常使用被动语态的一些情况： Smoking is prohibited in this area. No books are to be taken out of the room. 语气n陈述语气:陈述一个事实,或提出一个看法。n疑问语气:提出问题。n祈使语气:提出请求,发出邀请,给予指示、忠告、警告,或发出命令.主语you省略.动词用原形。n虚拟语气:虚拟语气是动词的特殊形式,用来表达说话人的意愿、建议、请求、意图、惊奇、设想等未能或不可能成为事实的情况,以及在说话人看来实现的可能性很小的情况。助动词、情态动词助动词:本身没有特别的意思,在句中和别的动词一起构成时态、语态、问句及否定句。情态动词:有一定的意思,表示“能愿”等,和句中其他动词一起表达完整意义。一般没有人称和时态的变化,其后动词要用原形。第三讲非谓语动词n动词的非限定形式n动名词n分词n动词不定式n动名词、分词、不定式用法区别动词的非限定形式非谓语动词又称动词的非限定形式.顾名思义:非谓语动词-表明不能独立作谓语。动词的非限定形式-表明不受主语人称、数的限制。非谓语动词有三种:不定式、动名词、分词,分词又分现在分词和过去分词.非谓语动词具备动词原有的一些性质,可以有自己的宾语和状语又具备其他词类的性质.再句中可承担名词、形容词、副词的作用。主语动词宾语介词宾语主语补足语宾语补足语定语状语同位语独立成分不 定 式 n./adj./adv.*动名词 n.*现在分词 adj./adv.*过去分词 adj./adv.*动名词 语态时态主动语态被动语态一般式(not) doing(not) being done完成式(not) having done(not) having been done1. It is not easy learning a foreign language.(主语) Learning a foreign language is easy.2. She enjoyed reading this book very much. (动词宾 语) Tom suggested going there by bike. I like playing basketball. *只能用动名词做宾语的动词: admit advocate appreciate advise avoid consider cant help cant deny delay stand dislike enjoy. 3.常跟动名词的几个短语动词:look forward to go on keep on object to 如:Im looking forward to seeing you again. (介词宾语)4.My hobby is collecting stamps. (表语） My work is Teaching English. 5. a waiting room (动名词) a sleeping car(动名词) a waiting person(现在分词)6.We call the process distilling(蒸馏). (补足语)7.His habit, reading newspapers at night, remains unchanged. (同位语) 8.动名词复合结构： 名词所有格/物主代词 + 动名词 Would you mind my(Toms)opening the window. It is no use your running away.分词过去分词、现在分词的区别：构成语态时间现在分词v-ing主动同时，正在进行过去分词v-ed被动之前，已经完成*现在分词的时态、语态：语态时态一般式完成式主动(not)doing(not)havingdone被动(not)beingdone(not)havingbeendone例句：Water existing in air is called vapor.Most water found in lakes and rivers is fresh water. He felt himself cheated. （补足语）China was found greatly changed. I found the house shaking.The game is acing.We are all excited.例句：The man is intersting.Caught in the rain,he had a fever.(原因状语)Fearing that the police would recognize him, he never went out by daylight.(原因状语)The job finished,we went home straight way.With advertisements made,the sale of the beer greatly increased.动词不定式动词不定式不定式时态、语态的变化：主动语态被动语态一般式(to) do(to) be done进行式(to) be doing完成式(to) have done(to) have been done完成进行式(to) have been doing 动名词、分词、不定式用法区别动名词、分词、不定式用法区别 1.动名词:多表示抽象、多次概念;逻辑主语多泛指人们.不定式:多表示具体、一次性动作;逻辑主语常是句子的主语.分词、不定式:1时间语态现在分词与某动作同时发生主动过去分词在某动作之前发生被动动词不定式与某动作之后发生用适当形式表示 例句：I like dancing.I dont like to dance tonight.I regret telling him about it.I regret to tell you that your mother is ill.I remember washing my hand before breakfast.第四讲丛句n名词性丛句:在句中起名词的作用,包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、同位语从句.n形容词性丛句:即定语从句,在整个句子中起定语的作用.定语从句通常置于它所修饰的名词和代词之后,这种名词和代词被称为先行词.n副词性丛句:状语从句用来修饰谓语、定语、状语或整个句子.名词性从句在句中起名词的作用，包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、同位语从句。引导名词性从句的三类连词：种类连词意义功能从属连词that本身无意义连接作用在从句中不担任成分if是否whether是否连接代词who谁（主格）在从句中作主语whom谁（宾格）在从句中作宾语连接代词连接副词whosewhatwhichwhenwherewhyhow谁的（所有格） 什么，东西（指物） 哪个/些（纸人或物）什么时候什么地方 为什么 如何 连接作用在从句中作定语 在从句中作状语 在从句中作主语、宾语、表语和定语在从句中作主语、宾语、表语和定语如果将从句当作独立的句子,可分为陈述句、一般疑问句、特殊疑问句,放入主句中作适当调整,疑问句要变成陈述语序：1.陈述句:直接由从属连词that引导,语序 保持不变. My suggestion is that we(should) start preparing for the final exam. My father said(that)it would be an unusual present.if不能引导:表语从句、(位于句首)的主语从句、介词后的宾语从句或同位语从句.whether后可紧接ornot,但if后不能紧接ornot,必须后移。2.一般疑问句:由从属连词if, whether引导,语序 变陈述语序。 I wonder if its large enough. The question whether she would come was answered by her.3.特殊疑问句:由连接代词、连接副词引导,语序变 陈述语序。 Thats where she spent her childhood. Tell me why it is so important. I have no idea how worried I was!4.同位语从句与that 引导的定语从句的区别： 同位语从句中,that 只起连接作用,整个从句相当于 先行词;定语从句中,that 相当于先行词,并在从句中 充当一定成分。形容词性从句即定语从句,在整个句子中起定语的作用.定语从句通常置于它所修饰的名词和代词之后,这种名词和代词被称为先行词.引导定语从句的关系词分为关系代词和关系副词:种类功能关系代词which指物that可指人，也可指物who,whom,whose指人；whose也可指物从句中可作主语、宾语，定语关系副词when,where,why在定语从句中只用作状语形容词性从句*限定性定语从句:一般紧跟在先行词的后面修饰、限定先行词,它与先行词之间没有逗号,去掉后会影响全句意思的完整性. *非限定性定语从句:用来解释、说明先行词或 主句所指内容,与先行词之间用逗号隔开. I want to buy the house which(=that)has a garage. I want to buy a house, which has a garage.使用从句的注意问题*在下列情形下只能用在下列情形下只能用that,而不能用而不能用which.1)序数词或最高级形容词修饰先行词时： Tom is the cleverest student that I have ever known. 2)行词是不定代词或被All,everything, nothing, anything, something等不定代词修饰时。 Mr. Green had told us something that we should do in the summer vocation. as引导的从句既可放在句中、句末,也可置于句首。 As is known, the director of the company is going to come to our branch.*介词介词which的结构可代替定语从句中的的结构可代替定语从句中的引导词引导词when和和where。He was born in Germany where(in which) he stayed for 12 years. She arrived at 12 oclock when(at which) it was raining hard.副词性(状语)从句时间状语从句时间状语从句常见关联词有常见关联词有when,whenever,while,as,before,after等。等。*while表示一段时间表示一段时间,不能表示先后发生不能表示先后发生,从从句动词应是延续性动词句动词应是延续性动词.可以表示一点时间，可以表示一点时间，强调两个动作同时或紧接着发生。强调两个动作同时或紧接着发生。*till/notuntilHedidntgotosleepuntilhehadfinishedhishomework.(正常结构正常结构)Notuntilhehadfinishedhishomeworkdidhegotosleep.(倒装结构倒装结构)Itwasnotuntilhehadfinishedhishomeworkthathewenttosleep.(强调结构强调结构)*表示“一就”的连词:once,assoonas,*表示“一就”的连词:once,assoonas(置于句首,从句用倒装语序)theminute,themoment,everytime,nexttime,theday,immediately,directly,instantly2.地点状语从句通常由地点状语从句通常由where,wherever引导如：引导如：Wherethereisawill,thereisaway.3.原因状语从句原因状语从句通常由because,as,since引导:*because语气最强.重在交待原因,以why引导的疑问句只能because用来回答. *as一词口气最弱,表示明显的原因.Asshewasinahurry,sheleftherkeyinthecar.*since表示人们已知的事实,所以常译成“既然”.Sinceeveryoneishere,letsgetstarted.*for属并列连词,不能位于句首,是对前一分句加以解释或说明. 4.目的状语从句目的状语从句引导词有sothat,inorderthat,incase,forfearthat,lestLetstryandarrangesothatwecangetthereat12.5.结果状语从句结果状语从句引导词有sothat,suchthat,sothat,suchthat,tothedegree/extentthat.Itissuchan(so)interestingbookthatIhavereadittwice. 6.条件状语从句条件状语从句分为真实和非真实两种.(非真实条件状语从句详见虚拟语气部分)引导词有if,incase,once如: IfitrainsonSunday,wewillnotgoonatrip.Youwillfailunlessyouworkhard.*祈使句+andwill相当于一个条件句.7.方式状语从句方式状语从句引导词有as,asif,asthough,theway.Doitthewayyouweretaught.Justasplantscouldnotgrowwithoutsunshine,fishwoulddiewithoutwater.8.比较状语从句比较状语从句引导词有asas,notas(so)As;比较级+than,the+比较级(从句.主句):Thebookisnotso/asgoodasthatone.9.让步状语从句让步状语从句引导词有though,although,As,eventhough,evenifAlthoughhewasAmerican,hespentmostofhislifeinChina.Eventhoughyousayso,Idonotbelieveit.WhileIunderstandyourpointofview,Idonotshareit.