Sentence-Semantics-2-Sentence-Semantics-2-ParticipantsParticipants Introduction& ThematicRolesGrammaticalRelationsandThematicRoles&VerbsandThematicRoleGridsProblemswithThematicRolesTheMotivationforidentifyingThematicRolesVoiceClassifying ParticipantsJohnopenedthedoorwithakey.ThematicRoles题元角色ThematicRolesAgentPatientThemeExperiencerBeneficiaryInstrumentLocationGoalSourceThematic Roles: （题元角色主要是动词所表示的活动或事件中的相对恒定的参与者角色）Thematicrolesmainlytotherelativelyconstantparticipantsinaactivityoranaffairactedbytheverbs.Agent(施事):theinitiatorofsomeaction,capableofactingwithvolition.Jackatethecakes.Patient(受事):theentityundergoingtheeffectofsomeaction,oftenundergoingsomechangeinstate.Thechildsmashedthevase.Thedogranaway.Thedogkilledthemice.Theme(主体):theentitywhichismovedbyanaction,orwhoselocationisdescribed.Thedishwasonthetable.Tomwalkedalongtheriver.Experiencer(经验体):theentitywhichisawareoftheactionorstatedescribedbythepredicatebutwhichisnotincontroloftheactionandstate.Maryheardthecry.Thebabygirlfeltill.Beneficiary(收益体):theentityforwhosebenefittheactionwasperformed.Robertcookedamealforhisbrother.Heborrowedmethevideo.Instrument(工具):themeansbywhichanactionisperformedorsomethingcomesabout.Kevinopenedthelockwithapaperclip.Sheopenedtheletterwithaknife.Location(处所):theplaceinwhichsomethingissituatedortakesplace.Thepicturehangsabovethefireplace.Theteacherputtheboxesonthedesk.Goal(目标):theentitytowardswhichsomethingmoves,eitherliterallyormetaphorically.Thegirldroppedtheglassonthefloor.Roberthandedhislicencetothepoliceman.Source(来源):theentityfromwhichsomethingmoves,eitherliterallyormetaphorically.Iborrowedthebookfromthelibrary.Theygotthenewsfromalocalnewspaper.Percept（知觉对象）:issometimesusedfortheentitywhichisperceivedorexperienced.Kittyfearsthunder.Thegeneralinspectedthetroops.Recipient（接受者）:issometimesidentifiedasatypeofgoal,involvedinactionsdescribingchangesofpossession.Helefthisfortunetothechurch.AlicereceivedaparcelfromJoan.Johnopenedthedoorwithakey.AgentPatientInstrumentDifficultiestoidentifyroles:Jackreceivedagiftofflowers.GoalBeneficiaryRecipientInJackendofftheideathatonenominalmightfulfillmorethanoneroleiselaboratedintoatheoryoftiersofthematicroles:Thematictierroles,whichdescribespatialrelations.Actiontierroles,whichdescribeACTOR-PATIENTtyperelations.theme,goal,source,locationactor,agent,experiencer,patient,beneficiary,instrumenta.SuehitFred.ThemeGoal(thematictier)ActorPatient(actiontier)b.Petethrewtheball.SourceTheme(thematictier)ActorPatient(actiontier)c.Billenteredtheroom.ThemeGoal(thematictier)(actiontier)Actord.Billreceivedaletter.(thematictier)(actiontier)GoalThemeeg1. Gina raised the car with a jack. Thematic Roles : agent patient and theme instrumentGrammatical Relations : subject direct object prepositional phraseeg2. a. Ursula broke the ice with a pickaxe. agent and subject patient and object instrument and prepositional phrase b. ( omit ) The pickaxe broke the ice. instrument and subject c. ( omit )(omit)The ice broke. patient and subject From eg.2, we can see that the verb break” allows “agent”, “patient”, “instrument” to occupy subject position. We call the process of different roles occupying the subject position is a hierarchical process. When speakers are constructing a sentence, they tend to place an agent into subject position, the next preference being for a recipient or benefactive, then theme or patient then other roles. This is described as implicational hierarchy. agentrecipientbenefactivetheme/patientinstrumentlocationleftmost rightmostmost expectedleast expectedagentrecipientbenefactivetheme/patientinstrumentlocationagentrecipientbenefactivetheme/patientinstrumentlocationrightmost leftmost allow subjectallow all?eg 1.a. This cottage sleeps five adults. b. The table seats eight. 2.a. The thief stole the wallet. b. Fred jumped out of the plane. 3.a. I forgot the address. b. Your cat is hungry. 4.a. She received a demand for unpaid tax. b. The building suffered a direct hit.location subjectsagent subjectsexperiencer subjectsrecipient subjects5.a. The bowl cracked. b. Una died6.a. Joan fell off the yacht. b. The arrow flew through the air. 7.a. The key opened the lock. b. The scalpel made a very clean cut.patient subjectstheme subjectsInstrument subjects.eg.1. The car raised. The car rose.eg. 2. John (agent) put the book (theme) on the shelf (location) Put V： The listing of thematic roles is often called a thematic role grid, or theta-grid for short. eg .a s Roland vp put np the book pp in the bathroom Roland put the book. In the bathroom Roland put a book. b s Roland vp read np the book pp in the bathroom Roland read the book. In the bathroom Roland read a book.argument and non-argumentargumentadjunct Participant roles-argument-needed by the prediction Non-participant roles-optional adjuncts-give extra informationargument and adjunct argument: cant be omitted adjunct : can form a sentence without it agent: give ,lend, supply, pay, denote, contribute.eg. Barbara AG loaned the money TH to Michael RE. V:Recipient: receive, accept, borrow, buy, purchase, rent, hireeg. Michael RE borrowed the money TH from Barbara SO. V:Problems with thematic roles(1)Howdowedelimitparticularroles?(2)Howdowedefinetheta-rolesingeneral?(1) How do we delimit particular roles?The extreme case: to identify individual thematic roles for each verb. beat Beater-roleBeaten-roleBoth the type of affectedness and the role of the INSTRUMENT vary between verb typesFor example: Dixon identifies eight types of affectednessJohn touched the lamp with his toe.The captain rubbed the cricket ball with dirt.Henry squeezed the rubber duck in his handAlison smashed the ice cube with her heelNo change occurs in the PATIENTThe surface of the PATIENT might be affectedA temporary change of shape in the PATIENT occursThe PATIENT loses its physical integrityThe questions :do the differences between the affectedness of the PATIENT reduce the usefulness of this label, or can the differences be explained in some way?(2) How do we define the theta-roles in general?Dowtys solution: theta-roles are not semantic primitives but are defined in terms of entailment of the predicate. The theta-role is a cluster of entailments about an argument position which are shared by some verbs.For example: x murders y x nominates y x interrogates yX does a volitional act.X intends this to be the kind of act named by the verb.X causes some event to take place involving y.Such a set of shared entailments about x will serve to define the nominal which denotes x as AGENT. Thus theta-roles are defined in terms of shared verbal entailment about nominal referents. A solution to the problem of the fuzziness of role: prototype Proto-AgentProto-Patienta. Volitional involvement in the event or stateb. Sentience( and/ or perception)c. Causing an event or change of state in another participantd.Movement( relative to the position of another participant )a.Undergoes change of stateb.Incremental themec.Causally affected by another participantd.Stationary relative to movement of another participantThese clusters of entailments would allow various kinds of shading.For example some arguments might have more of the entailments than others.John cleaned the house. (volition, sentience, causation and movement)John fainted and dropped the vase. (no volition)The storm destroyed the house. (neither sentience nor volition)This approach allows variation amongst AGENTs: some will be more typical and involve a greater number of characteristic entailments; others will be more marginal. Similar variation would hold for PATIENTs.These proposals by Dowty allow flexibility in defining thematic role. One result of his classification is that the traditional role-types fall out as more-or-less prototypical versions of the two main categories.For example,Maggie pruned the roses. (volition, sentience, causation and movement)Joan felt the heat as the aircraft door opened. (sentience, no volition or causation)The scalpel cut through the muscle. (causation and movement, but not volition or sentience)6.6 The Motivation for Identifying Thematic RolesFromourdiscussionsofaritisclearthatlinguistsemploythematicrolestodescribeaspectsoftheinterfacebetweensemanticsandsyntax.Oneoftheprimaryfunctionsofthematicrolesispredictingthelinkagebetweentheparticipantrolesandthegrammaticalrelations.InDowtysprototypeandentailmentsapproach,thislinkageisdescribedbyanargumentselectionprinciple.1.Argument Selection Principle: 2. the argument having the greatest number of Proto-Agent properties - the subject3. the argument having the greatest number of Proto-Patient properties - the direct objecta.CaptainNemosanktheshipwithatorpedo.b.Thetorpedosanktheship.C.Theshipsank.Captain Nemo-volition,sentience,causation,movementThe torpedo-causation,movementThe ship-movementDowtysversionofasubjecthierarchyAgentPatientInstrumentExperiencerGoalSourceAsecondjustification:tohelpcharacterizesemanticverbalclass.Eg.twoclassesofpsychologicalverbstakingtwoarguments:EXPERIENCER&STIMULUSPsychologicalverbstype1:Theta-grid:VVerbs:admire,enjoy,fear,like,love,relishPsychologicalverbstype2:Theta-grid:VVerbs:amuse,entertain,frighten,pleaseClaude liked the result.The result pleased Claude.Suchclassificationsofverbshelppredictthegrammaticalprocessesindividualverbswillundergo.Eg.passivea.Thewholecommunitywillbenefitfromthepeaceprocess.V:b.Thepeaceprocesswillbenefitthewholecommunity.V:Wecanlookatonefurthertypeofjustificationforthematicroleswhichcomesfromanotherareaofgrammar:theclaimthatinsomelanguagestheyplayaroleinthemorphologyofverbalagreement.6.7.1PassiveVoiceDefinition ThepassivevoiceisagrammaticalconstructionThenounornounphrasethatwouldbetheobjectofanactivesentence(suchasOurtroopsdefeatedtheenemy)appearsasthesubjectofasentencewithpassivevoice.(e.g.Theenemywasdefeatedbyourtroops).Effects Process Todescribeasituationfromdifferentperspectivea.Anncleanedthehouseb.The house wascleanedbyAnnAgent:AnnPatient:HouseForegroundingofotherrolesofasentenceratherthanpatienta.ThemeThismoneywasdonatedtotheschoolb.PerceptThevoicewasheardhundredsofmilesawayc.RecipientJoewasgivenaapplebyhersisterShowspeakersempathywiththepatientratherthanagentThehousewascleanedBackgroundingofAgentorDemotingofAgentForegroundingofPatientorPromotingofPatientSyntacticstrategy:psedudo-cleftandclefta.WhatJoanboughtwasacarb.ItwasJoanwhoboughtthecarLexicalstrategy:alterationonthelexicalrelationa.Theschoollocatedinfrontofthehotelb.ThehotelstoodbehindtheschoolTwoimportantfactorsofprocessofpassiveconstructionsGrammaticalfactorsThetypicalpatternisthatnominaloccupyingobjectpositionisfrontedtosubjectinpassives.DiscoursefactorsThediscofactorsaffectingpassiveshavebeendescribedinanumberofframeworks,suchasspeakerempathy6.7.2ComparisonofpassiveconstructionsacrosslanguageLanguagesoftenhavemorethanonepassiveconstruction:inEnglishforexample,itispossibletodistinguishbetweenbe-passivesandget-passives,suchasa.Jackwascaughtbythepoliceb.JackgotcaughtbythepoliceOtherlanguageshaveaspecialtypeofpassive,thatsimpersonalpassive.Impersonalpassivevoiceisaverbvoicethatdecreasesthevalencyofanintransitiveverb(whichhasvalencyone)tozero.Itdoesnotallowtheagenttobementionedinthesentence.ImpersonalpassiveshavebeenreportedinmanylanguagessuchasGerman,Welsh,Latinandsoon.Germanhasanimpersonalpassivevoice,asshownintheexamplesbelow:Active Voice:Die Kinder schlafen.Thechildrensleep.“Impersonal Passive Voice:Eswirdgeschlafen.Itisslept.Someoneissleeping.“Inthelatterexample,thesubject(DieKinder,thechildren)hasbeendeleted,andinitsplaceisthedummyesit.TheimpersonalpassiveshastwosamefunctionswithEnglishpassivementionedabove:a.ThedemotionofAgentsb.Thepromotionofnon-agents6.7.3MiddlevoiceDefinitionAsetofinflectionsorconstructionswhichistosomeextentdifferentfromboththeactiveandpassivevoices.Itissaidtobeinthemiddlebetweentheactiveandthepassivevoicesbecausethesubjectoftencannotbecategorizedaseitheragentorpatientbutmayhaveelementsofboth.Middleformsemphasizedthatthesubjectoftheverbisaffectedbytheactiondescribedbytheverb.Andithasfourtypicaluses,including:a.nuters中性名词b.bodilyactivityandemotionsc.reflexives反身代词d.autobenefactives结束结束