Chapter8BehaviorismBackgroundofBehaviorismThedefinitionoflearning:arelativelypermanentchangeinknowledgeorbehaviorthatresultsfromexperience.(behavior:anyactivitythatcanbeeitherdirectlyorindirectlyobserved)JohnBroadusWatson(1878-1958)DR. IVAN SECHENOV (1829-1905)DR.IVANSECHENOVborninRussia,wasknownastheFatherofRussianphysiology.Heintroducedelectrophysiologyintolaboratoriesandalsointoteaching.Hislifeworkwasalwaysconcentratedonneurophysiology.HewroteamajorclassicTheReflexesoftheBrain.Healsomaintainedthatphysiochemicalfactorsintheenvironmentofthecellareofequalifnotgreaterimportance.Hewasinconflictconstantlywiththegovernmentandhiscolleagues.Hewillalsoberememberedforhisintellectandhisknowledge,aswellasforhisscientificachievements.1 1、谢切诺夫（、谢切诺夫（1829182919051905）谢切诺夫长期从事神经生理学的实验研究，发现了谢切诺夫长期从事神经生理学的实验研究，发现了“中中枢抑制枢抑制”现象并建立了新的反射理论。现象并建立了新的反射理论。谢切诺夫把反射理解为有机体与环境的相互作用，包括谢切诺夫把反射理解为有机体与环境的相互作用，包括外界对有机体的作用、反射的中枢部分脑内进行的神经外界对有机体的作用、反射的中枢部分脑内进行的神经过程、机体的应答活动。过程、机体的应答活动。新反射理论揭示了心理与大脑的联系，证实了客观世界新反射理论揭示了心理与大脑的联系，证实了客观世界对心理的制约性，同时否定了心理学中的内省方法，确对心理的制约性，同时否定了心理学中的内省方法，确定了心理活动规律必须借助客观方法研究的客观性质。定了心理活动规律必须借助客观方法研究的客观性质。 VladimirMlkhailovichBekhterev别赫捷列夫（别赫捷列夫（1857185719271927）是苏联著名的老一辈生理学家、）是苏联著名的老一辈生理学家、心理学家和精神病学家。曾经在冯特的心理学实验室学习，心理学家和精神病学家。曾经在冯特的心理学实验室学习，与与18851885年在喀山大学建立俄国第一个心理学实验室，创立年在喀山大学建立俄国第一个心理学实验室，创立反射学，对心理的神经生理基础进行了客观研究。他被列反射学，对心理的神经生理基础进行了客观研究。他被列宁称为宁称为“新型的心理学家新型的心理学家”。主要著作：。主要著作：关于脑功能学关于脑功能学说的原理说的原理（19031903）、）、脑和它的活动脑和它的活动(1929)(1929)、客观客观心理学心理学(1917)(1917)、反射学的基本原理反射学的基本原理(1918)(1918)、集体集体反射学反射学(1921)(1921)等。等。其反射学的不足：其反射学的不足：机械主义机械主义 忽视了意识问题忽视了意识问题唯能论唯能论Ivan PavlovResearchPavlovs research into the physiology of digestion led him logically to create the conditioned reflexes. In his study of the reflex regulation of the activity of the digestive glands, Pavlov paid special attention to the phenomenon of psychic secretion, which is caused by food stimuli at a distance from the animal. By employing the method of establishing fistulas in the ducts of the salivary glands, Pavlov was able to carry out experiments on the nature of these glands.A series of these experiments caused Pavlov to reject the subjective interpretation of psychic salivary secretion and, on the basis of Sechenovs hypothesis that psychic activity was of a reflex nature, to conclude that even here a reflex - though not a permanent but a temporary or conditioned one - was involved.PavlovsExperimentIn the early twentieth century, Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled “psychic reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlovs dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.TwoBasicTypesofLearningClassicalconditioningProcessbywhichaninborn,involuntarybehaviorisproducedinnewsituationsClassicalConditioningBasedonhisobservations,Pavlovsuggestedthatthesalivationwasalearnedresponse.Thedogswererespondingtothesightoftheresearchassistantswhitelabcoats,whichtheanimalshadcometoassociatewiththepresentationoffood.Unlikethesalivaryresponsetothepresentationoffood,whichisanunconditionedreflex,salivatingtotheexpectationoffoodisaconditionedreflex.巴甫洛夫的主要理论思想巴甫洛夫的主要理论思想巴甫洛夫发展了反射理论巴甫洛夫发展了反射理论条件反射实验条件反射实验创立了高级神经活动学说创立了高级神经活动学说兴奋与抑制的扩散与集中及其相互诱导兴奋与抑制的扩散与集中及其相互诱导条件反射和暂时神经联系条件反射和暂时神经联系高级神经活动的基本规律高级神经活动的基本规律动力定型动力定型第一信号系统和第二信号系统第一信号系统和第二信号系统高级神经活动类型学说高级神经活动类型学说E.L. Thorndike1874 - 1949E.L. ThorndikeFirstscientifictheoryoflearning-TheoryofConnectionismComprehensiveanalogyofhumanlearning-Threevolumework,EducationalPsychology(1913a,1913b,1914)Initialworkwithanimallearninginlaboratorysetting-catinboxexperiment”What happened ? Schunk (2000)The Cat Learned !BehaviorChange=LearningThorndikes Theory of ConnectionismLaw of EffectIfSituation+ResponseisfollowedbyapositiveconsequencethentheconnectionbetweentheSituation+ Responseisstrengthened.IfSituation+ResponseisfollowedbyanegativeconsequencethentheconnectionbetweentheSituation+Responseisweakened.In Thorndikes words:“Whenamodifiableconnectionbetweenansituationandaresponseismadeandisaccompaniedorfollowedbyasatisfyingstateofaffairs,thatconnectionsstrengthisincreased:Whenmadeoraccompaniedorfollowedbyanannoyingstateofaffairs,thestrengthisdecreased.”(Thorndike,1913b)Note:Thorndike(1932)latermodifiedtheLawofEffectwhenresearchshowedthatwhilepositiveconsequencesstrengthenedconnections,negativeconsequencesdidnotnecessarilyweakenthem.“Spare the reward, spoil the child” by E.L. ThorndikeThe Big IdeaConsequencesofbehavioreffectbehavior,responsesresultinginsatisfyingconsequencesarelearned.Behavioraltheoriesexplainlearningintermsofenvironmentalevents.John B. Watson 1878 - 1958Watsons Life & AccomplishmentsBorn in South Carolina in 1878, his father left when John was 13. He was an unruly child and a poor student, but he had ambition. He was admitted to Furman University when he was only 16. While at Furman, he worked as an assistant in the chemistry department. Even though considered unsociable, he joined the Kappa Alpha fraternity. Ben Geer, a professor at Furman, said that Watson was “a non-conformist in college and in later life and explored theories and ideas for their sensationalism” . Watson graduated in 1899 and received his Masters after 5 years. Going to University of Chicago in 1900 to pursue a doctorate in Psychology and Philosophy, he arrived in Chicago with $50 and nothing else. He was the youngest person to receive a PhD at the age of 25. In 1904, Watson married Mary Amelia Ickes, one of his students at Chicago. They had two children, Mary (Polly) and John. In 1908, Watson joined the faculty at John Hopkins University, where he became the Director of Psychology and editor of the Psychological Review. In 1913, Watson published “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It”, in which he “reviewed failings of introspective study, and offered a different definition of psychology, calling it the science of behavior”. Watson also proposed the “conditioned reflex as an objective methodology that could be used to investigate sensory problems that were previously thought to be accessible only through introspection.” In 1916, Watson worked with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and served as a consultant for a life insurance firm. He was also elected president of the American Psychological Association. From 1917-1919, Watson served as a Major in World War I, among a group of scientists and engineers on the National Research Council (which was designed to coordinate research in all branches of science). Watson designed a number of tests for future pilots, studying their reaction to the deprivation of oxygen at high altitudes and gathering data for the development of tests for flight officers. Watson was seen as a key figure to mobilize psychology for the purposes of war and was given a $6,600 grant by the US Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board regarding venereal diseases among servicemen. In 1920, (back at John Hopkins University) after embarking on his famous and controversial study of Little Albert, Watson (42) had an affair with his student/assistant, Rosaline Rayner, (21) which resulted in his divorce from first wife, Mary. Forced to resign from John Hopkins, Watson married Rayner immediately and had two more children, William and James. WatsonsLife(1878-1958)1920:ScandalAffairwithstudentRosalieRaynerWatsonforcedtoresignMovedintoadvertisingIn 1921, Watson went to work for J. Walter Thompson Company, an advertising company, making four times what he made as a professor, and in 1924, was promoted to vice president of the company. Watson continued to write psychology articles for Harpers, McCalls, Liberty, Colliers and Cosmopolitan.In 1935, Rosaline died at the age of 35 and according to Watsons son, Jim, ”never completely recovered from Rosalines death. After she died, Watson lot his panache. He sold his Westport estate in the early 1950s and moved to a small farm in Woodbury, Connecticut, where he spent his last years.” In 1945, Watson retired. He never returned to academic life, but wrote a book on infant and child care with his wife, Rosaline, entitled ”Psychological Care of Infant and Child”. All of his books and articles were criticized by his former colleagues . In 1958, Watson died in New York City on September 25 at the age of 80. Just before he died, the American Psychological Association honored him with a gold medal for his outstanding contributions to psychology.John B. Watson Watsonchangedthefocusofpsychologyfromintrospection,toenvironmentalism.Theprinciplesoflearningwouldaccountforthelargestshareofbehavioraldevelopmentandareexercisedalmostexclusivelythroughenvironmentallearningopportunitiesprovidedforchildren.(reflectedinculturaldiversity&learningstudies)PavlovsInluencesonWatsonJohnB.WatsonfurtherextendedPavlovsworkandappliedittohumanbeings.In1921,WatsonstudiedAlbert,an11montholdinfantchild.ThegoalofthestudywastoconditionAlberttobecomeafraidofawhiteratbypairingthewhiteratwithaveryloud,jarringnoise(UCS).Atfirst,Albertshowednosignoffearwhenhewaspresentedwithrats,butoncetheratwasrepeatedlypairedwiththeloudnoise(UCS),Albertdevelopedafearofrats.Itcouldbesaidthattheloudnoise(UCS)inducedfear(UCR).TheimplicationsofWatsonsexperimentsuggestedthatclassicalconditioningcouldcausesomephobias（恐惧）inhumans.J.B.WatsonsLittleAlbertStudyBy“pairing”aloudnoisewithawhiterat(cute),thewhiteratbecameaCSforfearinlittleAlbertWhatisUS?LoudNoiseWhatisUR?CryingWhatisCS?WhiteRatWhatisCR?CryingGive me a dozen healthy infants well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and Ill guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might selectdoctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants（爱好）好）, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of hisancestors.(Watson, 1930, p. 104)Watsonsdefinitionsof“Behaviorism”“Thebehavioristviewpointisjustcommonsensegrownarticulate.Behaviorismisastudyofwhatpeopledo.”“Behaviorism-thenaturalscienceapproachtopsychology.”“Forthebehaviorist,psychologyisthatdivisionofnaturalscience,whichtakeshumanbehavior-thedoingsandsayings,bothlearnedandunlearned,ofpeopleasitssubjectmatter.Itisthestudyofwhatpeopledofromevenbeforebirthuntildeath.”“Behavioristicpsychologyattemptstoformulate,throughsystematicobservationandexperimentation,thegeneralizations,lawsandprincipleswhichunderliehumanbehavior.”“.wemaysaythatthegoalofpsychologicalstudyistheascertaining of such data and laws that, given the stimulus, psychology can predict what the response will be; or, on the other hand, given the response, it can specify the nature of the effective stimulus.”WatsonsTheoryofLearningTheFrequencyPrinciple(Watsonsprimaryprinciple)Responsesgaininstrengthinaccordancewiththeirfrequencyofoccurrence.Themostfrequentresponsebecomesthestrongestresponse.TheRecencyPrinciple(Watsonsseondaryprinciple)Themostrecentresponseisstrengthenedmorebyitsfrequentoccurrencethanisanearlierresponse.OtherEarlyAmericanBehavioristsEdwin B. Holt (1873-1946)霍尔特霍尔特Albert P. Weiss (1879-1931)魏斯魏斯Walter S, Hunter (1889-1954)亨特亨特Karl S. Lashley (1890-1958)拉什拉什里里