Input,Interaction&Output2021/6/31the Role of Input in SLAThoughalmostalltheoriesagreethatinputisnecessaryinacquisition,theydifferintheattitudetowardstheimportanceofit.2021/6/32the Role of Input in SLABehaviouristviewoftheroleofinputBehaviouristholdsthatimitation(andreinforcement)oflanguageinputistheprimarymechanisminlanguageacquisition.InBehaviorism,inputwaseverything.Withoutinput,learningcannotoccur2021/6/33MentalistviewoftheroleofinputTheyemphasizetheimportanceofthelearnersblackbox.InputisstillseenasessentialforL2acquisition,butitisonlyatriggerthatstartsinternallanguageprocessing.Inputisinsufficienttoenablelearnerstoarriveattherulesofthetargetlanguage.2021/6/34KrashensviewoftheroleofinputKrashenhasbeenthemostardentandpersistentonetotheinput.Inhistheory,hegivesthedefinition“humansacquirelanguageinonlyoneway-byunderstandingmessages,orthatisbyreceivingcomprehensibleinput”(Krashen,1985).2021/6/35the Role of Input in SLACordermadeanimportantdistinctionbetweenwhathecalledinputandintake.Input=languagetowhichlearnerisexposedIntake=whatisinternalized,takeninbythelearner2021/6/363stagesinturninginputintointakeUnderstandanL2i+1form(meaning)NoticeagapbetweenanL2i+1formandtheILrulewhichthelearnercurrentlycontrols(lateromitted,asacquisitiontakesplaceentirelyincidentallyorwithoutawareness)Thei+1formreappears.2021/6/37SimplifyingInputFerguson(1971)noticedthatlanguagedirectedatlinguisticallydeficientindividuals(childrenorNNSs)isgenerallysimplified.NSsconstantlymakeadjustmentstotheirspeechintheareasofpronunciation,grammar,andthelexiconinordertofacilitatecomprehensionbytheotherinterlocutorHecalledspeechdirectedatchildren“babytalk”andspeechdirectedatNNSs“foreignertalk”NowthesearecalledMothereseorChild-directed speechandForeigner Talk Discourse2021/6/38Foreigner talkOtherlessobviouscharacteristics:RestatingRepeatingElaboratingonresponsei.e.,moreinformationaidscomprehensionSpecifyindefiniteparticlesi.e.,clarifypronounsClarifygrammaticalelementsi.e.,addingorrestatingsubject,auxiliaryverb,etc.Overall,foreignertalkisvariableandcomesaboutwithconstantreassessmentduringconversation.2021/6/39UsefulnessofFTDEasiertounderstandforL2learnerInputthatisunderstoodfacilitateslearning(althoughdoesnotguaranteelearning)StudiesshowthatsomeforeignertalkismorecomprehensiblethanothersDiscourseelaboration,modifiedconversationalstructurearemorebeneficialthanlinguisticmodifications2021/6/310UsefulnessofFTDIthasbeenshownthatsimplificationsresultingfromdiscourseelaborationormodificationoftheconversationalstructurearemorelikelytoaidcomprehensionthanthosesimplificationsaimedatthelinguisticlevel2021/6/311Longsinteractionalhypothesis(anextensionofKrashensInputhypothesis)3stepsLinguistic/conversationaladjustmentspromotecomprehensionofinput.Comprehensibleinputpromotesacquisition.Therefore,linguistic/conversationaladjustmentspromoteacquisition.2021/6/312positsthatinteractionbetweenanon-nativespeaker(NNS)andanativespeaker(NS),ornon-nativespeakerofahigherlevel,createsanaturalisticSecondLanguageAcquisitionenvironmentwheretheNNSlearnsthroughnegotiationofmeaningand/orbecomingawareofgapsintheirtargetlanguageknowledge.2021/6/313TheInteractionHypothesishastakenasbasicthenotionthatconversationisnotonlyamediumofpractice,butalsothemeansbywhichlearningtakesplace,morespecificallywhenitcomestothenegotiationofmeaning(Gass)2021/6/314EspeciallynegotiationworkthattriggersinteractionaladjustmentsbytheNativeSpeakerormorecompetentinterlocutor,facilitatesacquisitionbecauseitconnectsinput,internallearnercapacities,particularlyselectiveattention,andoutputinproductiveways(Long1996,pp.451-2).2021/6/315ElementsofinteractionInteractionoftenrequiresnegotiationbetweentheinterlocutorsQuestionparticularcomponentsRequestclarificationRequestconversationalhelpNegotiationallowstheconversationtoproceedandallowsspeakerstomaintainequalfootinginaconversation.InNNSinteractions,negotiationisfrequentandusuallynecessarytocontinuetheconversation.2021/6/316TheInteractionHypothesisSLAtakesplacethroughconversationalinteraction.Long(1983)arguedthatmodifiedinteractionisthenecessarymechanismformakinglanguagecomprehensible.Whatlearnersneedisnotnecessarilysimplificationofthelinguisticformsbutratheranopportunitytointeractwithotherspeakers,workingtogethertoreachmutualcomprehension.Researchshowsthatnativespeakersconsistentlymodifytheirspeechinsustainedconversationwithnon-nativespeakers.2021/6/317TheInteractionHypothesisLongsoriginalformulation(1983)oftheInteractionHypothesis:1.Interactionalmodificationmakesinputcomprehensible;2.Comprehensibleinputpromotesacquisition;Therefore,3.Interactionalmodificationpromotesacquisition.2021/6/318TheInteractionHypothesisModified interactioninvolveslinguisticsimplificationsandconversationalmodifications.Examplesofconversationalmodifications:elaboration,slowerspeechrate,gesture,additionalcontextualcues,comprehensionchecks,clarificationrequests,andself-repetitionorparaphrase.ResearchhasdemonstratedthatconversationaladjustmentscanaidcomprehensionintheL2.2021/6/319TheInteractionHypothesisLongsrevisedversion(1996)oftheInteractionHypothesis:-moreemphasisisplacedontheimportanceofcorrectivefeedbackduringinteraction.-“negotiatingformeaning”isseenastheopportunityforlanguagedevelopment.2021/6/320“Negotiationformeaning.facilitatesacquisitionbecauseitconnectsinput,internallearnercapacities,particularlyselectiveattention,andoutputinproductiveways.”(Long1996)Duringnegotiation,thelearnerallocatesattentionalresourcestothegapthatisnoticedbetweenILandTLortoanareaofperceiveddeficiency.Interactionservesasaprimingdeviceforacquisition.2021/6/321“Comprehensible output hypothesis”(Swain,1985)Thedemandsofproducingcomprehensibleoutput“push”learnersaheadintheirdevelopment.2021/6/322Swain(1985)arguedthatthefailuretoachievenative-likecompetenceingrammarandotherfeaturesmaybeduetothelearnerslackofopportunitiestoactuallyusetheirtargetlanguage.2021/6/323Swainsoutputhypothesis(1985)maintainsthatopportunitiesforlanguageproduction(thetermnowpreferredtooutput)andpracticeneedtobepromotedforbothwrittenandspokenlanguagewithanemphasisonlinguisticaccuracy.Producingthetargetlanguage,sheclaims,mayforcestudentstopaymoreattentionto(ortonotice)howthelanguageisusedandwhattheyneedtoknowinordertoconveymeaning,thandoessimplycomprehendingit.2021/6/324Functions of learner outputTheproductionofTLmaypushthelearnertobecomeawareofgapsandproblemsintheircurrentL2system(noticing)Itprovidesthemwithopportunitiestoexperimentwithnewstructuresandforms(testinghypothesis)Itprovidesthemwithopportunitiestoreflecton,discussandanalysetheseproblemsexplicitly(reflecting)2021/6/325Functions of learner outputOnlyL2production(i.e.output)reallyforceslearnerstoundertakecompletegrammaticalprocessinganddriveforwardthedevelopmentofL2syntaxandmorphologyComprehensionvs.Production(Pushed)LearneroutputseemsmostusefulintheareaofvocabularyNotenoughevidenceisobtainedontherelationshipbetweenlearneroutputandthelearningofgrammar.Richinputcombinedwithavarietyofnoticingactivitiesmaybeenoughtofacilitategrammarlearning.2021/6/326ComprehensibleoutputInputaloneisinsufficientforacquisitionWecancomprehendwithoutknowledgeofthesyntacticalstructure,etc.allyouneedisalittlevocabandsomeworldknowledge.ProductionofthelanguagedoesrequirestructuralknowledgeSwain(1985):Productionmay“forcethelearnertomovefromsemanticprocessingtosyntacticprocessing”Comprehensibleorpushedoutput:learnersarestretchedintheirproductioninordertomakethemselvesunderstoodModify,restate,trynewforms,etc.2021/6/327ComprehensibleoutputHowdoesoutputaidacquisition?TestinghypothesesReceivingfeedbackforverifyinghypothesesDevelopingautomaticityinILShiftingfrommeaning-basedprocessingtosyntacticprocessingseenextslides2021/6/328HypothesistestingThroughnegotiationandthroughfeedback,learnerscanbecomeawareofthehypothesestheyareusingtocreatelanguageUseoflanguageallowsforanalyticityoflanguageSelf-correctionshowsthisconstanthypothesistesting2021/6/329AutomaticityConsistentandsuccessfulmappingofgrammartooutput(i.e.,practice)resultsinautomaticprocessing2021/6/330部分资料从网络收集整理而来，供大家参考，感谢您的关注！