LectureSix:ChineseCalligraphy主讲：国际学院 余惠芬等CourseObjectives1.TohavearoughideaofChinesecalligraphyandpainting:historyandfeaturesasatreasureofChinesetraditionalculture2.TolearntoexpressinEnglishwhenintroducingChinesecalligraphyandpaintingisnecessary.CourseContentSincetimeislimited,itisimpossibletogiveadetaileddiscussionaboutthetopic,thecoursewillfocusonageneralpictureofthesubjectorsomeparticularaspects.Thislecturewillcenteronthebrushcalligraphyandpaintingonly,andmoreemphasisistobelaidoncalligraphy.ChineseCalligraphyWithahistoryoffourtofivethousandyears,theartofcalligraphyisrichandprofoundincontentandhasattractedtheattentionofartiststheworldover.What are Four Basic Skills andDisciplines of Chinese Literati文文人人,文学界文学界?Shu(calligraphy)Hua(painting),Qin(astringmusicalinstrument),andQi (a strategic boardgame) are the fourbasic skills and disciplines of the Chineseliterati.Calligraphy:featuresandposition&influenceWhat is the purpose of Chinesecalligraphy?conveyingthought,theabstractbeautyoftheline.Rhythm, line, and structure are moreperfectlyembodiedincalligraphythaninpaintingorsculpture.revealing of ones personalityChineseSaying:ZiRuQiRenZiZiZhuJicriterion for selection of executives tothe Imperial court ： strokes arepermanentandincorrigible,demandingcareful plan and confident execution,skillsrequiredforanadministrator.aninfinitevarietyofstylesandforms.Bycontrollingtheconcentrationofink,the thickness and adsorptivity of thepaper, the flexibility of the brush, theartist is free to produce : an infinitevarietyofstylesandformsExample:inkblots,drybrushstrokesasimprompturatherthanafaultWhilewesterncalligraphyfontlikeuniformity,homogeneityofinonesizeisonlyacraft.书法 handwritingamostrelaxingyethighlydisciplinedexerciseindeedforonesphysicalandspiritualwellbeing.Eg. Many calligraphy artist wereknownfortheirlongevityInfluenceJapan&Korea:calligraphy as an important treasure of theirheritage.Japanese:contestofwritingbigcharactersatschoolsBiggatheringcommemoratingthe Lanting XubyWangXiZhiKorean:governmentofficialswererequiredtoexcel in calligraphy. Office of OkinawagovernordecorIntheWest:PicassoandMatisse马蒂斯，亨利18691954法国艺术家、野兽派画家先锋Picasso：HadIbeenbornChinese,Iwouldhavebeenacalligrapher,notapainterHenriMatisse： TracesofcalligraphystrokesinthepaintingsJacksonPollocksactionpaintings：theimpactofCaoShu(swift/grassstyle)byHuaiSu.Pollock, Jackson (191256). Americanpainter, the commanding figure of theAbstractExpressionistmovement.Brice Marden (American) and MarkTobey American Abstract Expressionist Painter,18901976)： two other contemporaryartistswhohaveactuallystudiedChinesecalligraphy and used its techniques intheirpaintings.modernWesternart：especiallyinindustrialart.incomputeradvertisements:calligraphytype,free-form letteringinlieuofthemundaneTimeRomanandArial fonts.Notably,thelogoofLucent美国朗讯科技公司,原AT&T实验室is a best example of application ofChinese calligraphy a red circle done with aChinesebrushsignifiesthefirstbitofallcomputerlanguage(zero).proliferation of digital computation andsiliconchips,freeformcalligraphyprevail.arenaissanceperiodforthisancientart.Like chopsticks, as Chinese culturespread to Korea, Japan, VietnamandSingapore,calligraphybecameauniquefeatureofOrientalart.Whatiscalligraphy?ChinesecalligraphyisanOrientalart.Butwhatmakesitanart?theartofwritingChinesecharacters.auniqueartisticformwithalonghistorynotcontentwithwritingthecharacterscorrectlyandlegiblyurgedbytheirloveofbeautyandcreativeimpulse,makeeachcharacterintoanartisticunitthroughcenturiesofsustainedanduninterruptedpractice,andbyputtingmanysuchunitstogether,produceanartisticcompositions.agraphiccompositionalifeunitconsistingofboneandmuscles,fleshandblood,whichallowspeopletodisplaytheirimaginationandartisticabilityfreely;theuniquewritingimplements,especiallythebrushQualitiesofapaintingUseofChinesecharacterstocommunicatethespiritualworldoftheartist.DifferentfacesdifferenthandwritingThroughmediumofform,wayofhandlingthebrush,presentation,andstyle,calligraphyasaworkofartconveysthemoralintegrity,character,emotions,estheticfeelingsandcultureoftheartisttoreaders,affectingthembythepowerofappealandthejoyofbeauty.notonlyapracticaltechniqueforwritingChinesecharactersbutalsoauniqueOrientalartofexpressionandabranchoflearningordisciplineaswell.richincontent,wideranginganddeep,forminganimportantpartofChineseculture，including：evolutionofwritingstylesdevelopmentandrulesoftechniquehistoryofcalligraphy,calligraphersandtheirinheritanceinart,evaluationofcalligraphyasaworkofart.In the eyes of knowledgeable westernscholar:notmeresymbol,butaloftyarteverycharacteriswrittenlikeabeautifulflower.develop a keen interest in and love forChinesecalligraphy.fromtheconstructionofthecharacterstheyseektounderstandcalligraphy.from calligraphy they seek to learn aboutOrientalcultureabstractbeautyofChinesecalligraphicart.the most ancient and most condensed ofabstractarts.thebeautyofimageinpainting,thebeautyofdynamismindanceandthebeautyofrhythminmusic.anintimaterelationshipbetweenabstractarttheultramodernartoftheWestandthemostancientartcalligraphyoftheEast.AlthoughcalligraphyshomeisChina,itdoesnotbelongexclusivelytoChina.It does not belong exclusively to theEast,either.Itsnoexaggerationtosaythatcalligraphyisagemintheworldsarttreasury.OriginofcalligraphyancientChineseCalligraphyhistorysincethedaywhentheshellandboneinscriptions appeared in the ShangperiodNo precise date is given in ancientChinesehistory.Legend : Yellow Emperor Cang JieinventedtheChineselanguagecalligraphy came 4,600 years ago,butlegendaryandcredible.archaeological discoveries new Chinahave authenticated that 4,500 years agolanguage came into existence in China. Itfollowsthatcalligraphyenteredanembryonicstagethen.Thephotoisanancientsunrisepainting.ThepaintingwasadesigninscribedonabigmouthedpotteryjarasacrificialvesseltothesunbyprimitiveChineseforebearsinShandongduringtheperiodwhentheDawenkouculturethrived(40002000BC).PotterydiscoveredintheruinsoftheancientLongshancultureinDinggongVillage,ZoupingCounty,ShandongProvince,inJanuary1992.Itmaywellbedescribedastheembryoofcalligraphy in seal characters. It is 4,300yearsoldChinese calligraphy is at least fourthousandyearsold,basedonlegendarytales and on textual criticism inarchaeology.But:Isitpossiblethatsomethinglikeabrushwasusedtowritethecalligraphy?Inotherwords,calligraphywrittenbymeansofthebrushalsohasahistoryofoverfourthousandyearsinChina.thebeginninguptotheHanDynastyfromtheprimitivetomature.moresimplified,moreconvenientandmorepracticalandasbeautifulaspossible.SoitisreasonablethatsomescholarsandcriticsregardtheHanDynasty,ortobemoreexact,thelateHanasthebeginning era when characterwritingwas purposely engaged in as anart.(206BC220AD)Analysis of Chinese characters (CalligraphyAlphebet)Calligraphy is the art of writingChinesecharacters.To understand calligraphy, one mustfirst know something about Chinesecharacters.The various nationalities in the worldhave created their own languages, buttheChinesehavecreatedanindependentcalligraphicart.Why?The reason is mainly related to thefeaturesofthelanguage.TwoSystemsofLanguagesLanguages fall into two systems: sound andmeaning.Phonetic：语音Eg:Thecuneiform楔形的,楔状骨的,楔形文字的writingoftheSumeriann.闪族人语theKatakanaintheJapaneselanguageEnglish,French,Russian,GermanandLatinIdeographic表意的,表意字构成的ThelanguageofthesacredbooksofancientEgypt,thepictographic象形文字的languageofCrete克利特岛(位于地中海东部,属希腊),theChineselanguagethelanguageoftheDongbanationality.Ideographiclanguageshaveforthemostpartbecome extinct. Only one such language as,Chinese,isstillwidelyusedtoday.A comparison of the two systems oflanguage indicates that a phoneticlanguage has an advantage over anideographiclanguage.Phonetic languages: few letters, easilylearned and memorized, popularizedmoreeasilyThepinyinformofChineserepresents the direction of languagedevelopment.ideographiclanguages:agreatmanysymbols,difficultandcumbersomemorphology, hard to learn and remember,easilybepopularized.morphologyn.生物形态学、形态论,语法词法、词态学cumbersomeadj.讨厌的,麻烦的,笨重的TheinscriptionsonbonesandtortoiseshellsoftheShangDynasty,threethousandyearsagoorso,hadvocabulariesoffivethousandsymbols.TherecentlypublishedHanYuDaZiDian汉语大字典, a comprehensive Chineselanguagedictionary,hasover54,000entries.Every character can be written in regularscript, grass script, official script, etc., andeveryscriptcanbewrittendifferently,rangingfromafewtoasmanyasscoresofstyles.The largest runs to about one hundred. Forexample, bai shou tu 百寿图 shows onehundred ways to write shou (longevity) inofficialscript.The Chinese language contains anenormousnumberofcharacters.difficulttonovicen.新手,初学者Everythingintheworldissaidtohaveadualcharacter.ForChinese:a huge stock of characters and themorphologyvariesgreatly.writingwordsinmanyways.Openingupahugevista（n.狭长的景色,街 景 , 展 望 , 回 想 ） for Chinesecalligraphytodevelopintoanindependentart.difficulttomasterbutgovernedbyrules.Justlikenotesinmusic,charactersareformed by changing the combinationof elements. Tens of thousands ofwordsinChinesecanbebrokendownintoseveralhundredcomponentparts.Take,forinstance：中国EightbasicstrokesinChineseCharacterdot,dash,perpendiculardownstroke,downstroke to the left, wavelike stroke,hook,upstroketotherightandbend.Theeightbasicstrokes,likenotesinmusic,can be developed into many tunes andmovements,orschoolsofChinesecalligraphy.EveryChinesecharactercontainsapictureWhat Chinese calligraphysupplydoyouneed?brush,ink,paperinkstone(InkSlab)CalligraphySetFourtreasuresofthestudyBrushMengTian(?210B.C.)brushpredatedthewrittenlanguageitself.Based on the decorative designs onpaintedpotteryandvisiblestainsormarksof a brush, The history of the Chinesebrush can be traced back a least sixthousandyears.BrushinalargedegreemakeswritingofChineseCharacteranart.strokes can be light or heavy, thick or fine. Thestrokes flow naturally, entering an artistic worldwith an element of wonder. Other materials maygive you a handsome style, but they can hardlyattain the level of achievement in calligraphic artexecutedbythebrush.SelectingbrushTheheadofbrush:madeof the hair of the goat,wolf,ratorrabbitTheChinesebrushpointshouldhavethefollowingcharacteristics:roundness, pointedness,evennessandstrength.“round like an awl,pressedlikeachisel”Kinds:Bymaterial:soft,stifforcombinationofthetwoSoft:madeofgoathairYangHaoStiff:madeofwolfhairLangHaoCombination:70percentrabbithairand30percentgoathairJianHaoBysize:small,mediumsize,bigGenerally,abig,softbrushisusedtowritelargecharacters and a small, stiff one to write smallcharacters.InkStickLegendKang Yi 2800yearsagoArchaeologists:inkmarks on the back ofinscribedbonesortortoise shells of theShangDynasty,3200yearsago.ThreemajorcategoriesofInksticksfallintothreemajorcategories,accordingtothechiefmaterialsusedinmanufacture.The pinesoot ink stick: pine sootglue, medicinalmaterialandspices.Theoilsootinkstick.Tungoil,sesameoil,rapeseedoilorpetroleumisburnedandthesootismixedwithgelatine,medicinalmaterialandspices.Theoilandpinesootinkstick.ThisisamixtureofthepreviousProportionsvary,andthequalityoftheinkstickdiffersaccordingly.Choosingtheinkstickbyitscolorandsound.Glossyadj.平滑的,有光泽的purpleisbest.Blackissecond.Glossygreenisthird.Glossywhiteislast.Ifyoustriketheinkstickanditgivesalightsound,thismeansitisafineinkstick.Ifthesoundismuffled,itisnotagoodone.Ifthesoundisfinewhenyougrindtheinkstickon the slab, it means you have a good inkstick.Ifthesoundisroughduringgrinding,itmeanstheinkstickisnonetoogood.HowtogrindtheinkstickCleanwaterforgrinding.Thebestwatercontainsasmallamountofsalt.Nextcomeswellwater,thentapwater,thendistilledwater.DonotUseteaorhotwatertogrindaninkstick.TheinkstickmustbebalancedPresshardandrublightly.Rubtheinkstickslowlyandevenly.Atfirstuseonlyalittlewater.Whenathickliquidforms,addwaterandruborgrindagain.Thethicknessorthinnessoftheinkdependsonhowmuchorhowlittleyouneedtouse.Iftheinkistoothick,itwillbedifficulttousethetipofthebrush,whichwillglueup.Iftheinkistoothin,itwillprobablyfilterthroughthepaper.PaperLegendCaiLun7121)Archaeologicaldiscoveries:EarlyWesternHan,acoarsepaperappeared.XuanpaperJing County paper was first shipped toXuanzhou,thentransshippedtootherports.(the county was under the jurisdiction ofXuanzhouPrefecture),hencethename.softandfinetextured,suitableforconveyingthe artistic expression of both Chinesecalligraphyandpainting.goodtensile/tensail/strengthandnoteasilyeatenbymoths,preservedforalongtime.reputationoflastingathousandyears.kindsofXuanpaperkindsofXuanpaper:dan,jia,luowen,coral,tigerskinandjadeplate.Quality:unprocessed,processedorhalfprocessed.Itssomewhattoyouradvantagetousecoarsepaper. Ifyoupracticehandwritingunderlessfavorable conditions, you develop greateradaptability. Do not think that you cannotproducegoodhandwritingifyoudonothavegoodqualitypapertopracticeon.InkSlaborInkStoneWhenwasinkslabinvented?controversialquestion.AttributedtotheYellowEmperor，butappearedmuchearlier(sixtoseventhousandyearsago)Archaeologists:manyancientinkslabsdiscovered,suchasajadeinkslaboftheShangandZhoudynasties,astoneslabofthepreQinDynasty,apaintedslabandapaintedslabmixedwithsandbelongingtotheHanDynasty,copperandsilverslabsaswellasironslabsoftheWeiandJindynasties,ablueporcelainslabofthe Six Dynasties and a clay slab of the TangDynasty.Whatwasinkstonemadeof?Mostinkslabs,modernorancient,weremadeofstone.Theearliestinkslabwasmadeofstoneandacquiredthegreatestpopularity.Howcaninkstonesbeclassified?Ink stones or ink slabs have beenclassified into three categories sincetheTangDynasty:DuanSheTao.DuaninkslabProducedinZhaoqing,GuangdongProvince,itismadeofDuanstone,so named because the DuanxiRiver runs at the foot of MountFuke,wherethestoneisfound.Said to be the best stone formakinginkslabs,DuanstonewasusedtomakeinkslabsasearlyastheTangDynasty(618907).Duanink slabs have earned a highreputationamongChinesescholarseversince.SheinkslabIt is named after ShezhouPrefecture,AnhuiProvince,where it was first produced intheTangDynasty.Manycountiesunderthejurisdictionofthis prefecture produce She inkslabs, but the best come fromMountLongwei,WuyuanCounty,JiangxiProvince.Sometimes She ink slabs arereferredtoasLongweiinkslabs.TaoinkslabThisinkslabhasbeenproducedinTaozhousinceancienttimes.Nowitisproducedmainlyin Taoyan Village, Zhuoni County, GansuProvince. Tao ink slabs are made of stonefoundattheTaoRiver;hencethename.UseofinkstabOnecommonfeature：hardandfine.Hardbutnotdry.Thoughfine,itisnotslippery.ityieldsinkveryquickly.Ingrindingtheinkstickagainsttheinkslab:exertyourforceevenly,soastokeeptheinkslabsteady.Grindonlytheinkyouneedforwriting.Afteruse,theslabmustbewashedclean.Leaveabitofcleanwaterinthecenteroftheslab.Thiswillkeeptheslabingoodcondition.Takecarenottostaintheslabwithoilorgrease.Changesinwritingstyledifferentwritingstyles,orscriptszhenshu (regular script prevalent intheHanDynasty)caoshu(cursivescript),lishu(officialscript,clerical)andzhuanshu(sealcharacterscript).DevelopmentofStylesthreeepochs:sealcharacterscriptofficialscriptregularscript.sealcharacterperiodThe seal character period ran from(theend of primitive society to the QinDynasty(221206B.C).The period, lasting more than twothousand years, is divided into threephases:earlysealcharactergreatersealcharacterlessersealcharacter.Earlysealcharacterswrittenbyprimitivepeopletheearliestformofwritingonrecord.amildstyleandvariedpostures.like a length of knotted rope. ThisformofwritingwasperhapsrelatedtotheuseofropebyprimitivepeopletorecordeventsGreatersealcharactersgenerallyrefertoancientscriptsofpreQinDynasty,suchasinscriptionsonbones,tortoiseshells,bronzevessels and drumshaped stone blocks and theancientlanguageoftheSixStates.InscriptionsengravedonbonesandtortoiseshellsmostlystiffandstraightEarly inscriptions on bronze vessels roundness,fullnessandroundaboutturns.ScriptsofthepreQinperiodalsoincludetheancientlanguageoftheSixStates.Theyareallclassifiedasgreatersealcharacterscripts.Lessersealcharacterscriptthe officially approved script followingthe unification of Chinese languages by theQinDynasty.alsoknownasQinsealcharacterscript.Sinceit contrasts with the previous seal characterscript,thetwoarecalledgreaterandlesser.inscriptionsonstonesextollingthemeritsofpersonsorthings,sealsormarksofauthenticityoremblemsortowriteimperialedicts.tremendoushistoricalprogress.Numerousdialectsa unified written language plays animportant part as a link between variousnationalities to cement national solidarityandachievenationalunification.ItwastheQin, or lesser, seal character script thatservedasalinkanddeservesmuchcredit.Anoutstandingwork representativeofQinsealcalligraphy is thewritingofLiSi(?c208 B.C.), regardedas the father oflessersealcharacterscript.Heexertedaprofound influenceonthesealcharacterscriptoflatergenerations.Kaishuformal/regularstyleKaishucameintouseinChinaattheendoftheHanDynasty.stillusedinChinatodayaftermorethan1.700years.ItisthemainChinesewritingstyle,calledkaishu,orregularscript.Itisalsocalledzhengshuorzhenshu.initiatedbyWangCizhongtowardtheendoftheHanDynasty,accordingtolegend.IntheWeiJinperiodZhongYou(151230)andWangXizhi(303363)initiated a new way of writing thatallowedkaishuandlishutoseparateandformtwosystems.To study Chinese calligraphy, oneshould begin with kaishu. The nextstepistostudycarefullyvariousotherscriptsandabsorbtheirgoodpoints.Inthiswayonewillcreateauniquestyleofonesown.By the Han Dynasty it was promoted as awriting style. In over four hundred years ofpropagation lishu created many schools ofwriting.LishuwasunderwentadevelopmentofoverfourhundredyearsthroughtheWei,Jin,SouthernandNortherndynasties.Bythelatter part of the Southern and NorthernDynastiesthescriptriditselfofanyremaininginfluenceoflishu,attainingcompletematurity.ChinesecalligraphyentereditsgoldenageduringtheSuiandTangdynasties,whenChinaproducedthelargestnumberofcalligraphersandmadethegreatestachievementsincalligraphicart,unmatchedotherhistoricperiodsordynasties.Ofthefourfourschoolsofcalligraphybefore:Yan,Liu,OuandZhao.thefirstthreethrivedintheTangDynasty.TheaboveisaroughaccountofthehistoryofChinesecalligraphy.Thescripting,lishubranchedoutintoxingshu(runningscript)andcaoshu(cursivescript),writteninaflowingstylewiththestrokesjoinedtogether.Lishumaybesaidtobetheharbingerofrunningandcursivescripts.FourgreatschoolsofcalligraphyYan,Liu,OuandZhao.OuschoolismarkedbycharactersofstrengthYan school produces characters with strongsinewsorpowerfulframework.ThecharactersoftheLiuschoolarecomparedtothebonesofthebody.Zhao characters are compared to the flesh ofthebody.Adescriptionofeachfollows.YanStyleofCalligraphyYanZhenqing(709785)anativeofLangya(nowLinyi,ShandongProvince).hewastitledDukeofLu Commandery. People respectfully called himYanLuGong.HewasagreatcalligrapherattheheightoftheTangDynastyspowerandglory.AnearlyrepresentativeworkwasDuoBaoTaBei.Afine work representative of his middle era wasDongFangShuoHuaXiangZanBei.YanShiJiaMiaoBeiwasapowerfulworkrepresentativeofhislateryears.Thestyleofhiscalligraphyisboldand vigorous,showing spaciousness and breadth.YansWorksBeforeYanZhenqingcalligraphyofWangXizhiandhisson,WangXianzhi.naturalandunrestrained,elegantandrefined.trulybeautiful.However,itlacksstrengthandvigor.YanZhenqingscalligraphyimposing appearance of a marshal, or it is asmajesticasasovereignruler.grandeur and loftiness. Likethe poetryofLiBaiand Du Fu, Yan calligraphy embodies the grandspirit of the Tang Dynasty as its height. Yancalligraphy is as robust as the sun. After WangXizhistime(JinDynasty)ChinesecalligraphicartreachedanepochmakingpeakwiththeappearanceofYanZhenqingscalligraphy.ItbecamethefashionintheSongDynastytotakeYanscalligraphyasamodelforcopying.Thishaspersistedtothisday,overathousandyearslater.Yan Zhenqing, Duo Bao Pagoda Stele,TangDynasty(regularscript)LiuStyleofCalligraphyLiuGongquan(778865),aliasLiuChenxian,was a native of Huayuan, Jingzhao (nowYaoxianCounty,ShaanxiProvince).Aleadingofficial of the Tang Dynasty, he was titledDukeofHedongCommanderyandpopularlycalledLiuHeDong.Agreatcalligrapherofhis time, he was ranked alongside YanZhenqing as one of two great calligraphers.ThetwowerereferredtoasYanLiu.Whenamansetthepurposeofhisliferight,hewouldbeabletowriteuprightcharacters.LiuGongquanwasspeaking of the relationship betweenthemindandthebrush.The style of Liu calligraphy may becompared with the integrity of thecalligrapher. The framework is verystrictlyexecuted.Thestyleisstrictandrigorous.LIUSWORKOuStyleofCalligraphyOuyang Xun (557641), also known asXinben, was a native of Linxiang (nowChangsha,HunanProvince).HewasalsoaleadingofficialoftheearlyTangDynasty,servingthecrownprince.Theframeworkofcharacters in Ou calligraphic style is veryrigid.Hischaractershavestrength,andhisstylehassolemnityandgrace.ZhaoStyleofCalligraphyZhaoMengfu(12541322),aliasZiangandXuesongDaoren,wasanativeofHuzhou(nowWuxing,ZhejiangProvince).Hisstyleismellowandfull,handsomeand rather refined, not at all vulgar.The structure is compact and wellproportioned.Wefindflexibilitythatisrather natural. The running script isparticularlygracefulandelegant.SometimesthetechniqueofwritinginZhao style appears to be moredexterous than required, resulting inlack of strength in the brush stroke.ThecalligraphyofZhaoMengfuslateryears is more mature, with vigorousstrokesthatdisplaypower.ApartfromthefourschoolsofChinesecalligraphy there are the works ofZhongYouandWangXizhi,originators of regular script. Theirworks have won respect and highpraise from calligraphers through theages.AppreciationofTheArtofChineseCalligraphyCalligraphyisanabstractart.While viewing a Western abstractpainting, one does not ask, What isit?When viewing Chinese calligraphy,oneneednotask,WhatistheChineseword?lookatthemforenjoyment.Donotbesidetracked with questions of theory,technique, etc. Do not worry aboutWhatisit?Beside each work, a very shortcomment is given to describe itsstyle,basedontheclassicalbookofTuMeng.Tu Meng of the Tang dynasty (618905)developed120expressionstodescribedifferent styles of calligraphy and establishcriteria for them. The first 15 from his list,withexplanationsandEnglishinterpretationsbyChiangYee:ability,mysterious,careful,carefree,balanceunrestrained,mature,virile,grace,sober,wellknit,prolix,rich,exuberant,classicA gracefully executed work has no peer. Full panel-(100k)By Si-Ma Kuang, Song Dynasty (1019-1086BoldyetfluidFullpanel.FromOde of MulanbyMiFeiMeiFei(akaMiFu)FormalFullpanelByYanZhenqingYenChenChingBalanceFullpanelByWuJuWuChuGeometricFullpanelByZhangRuitu(15701641)playfulByLiJuan(b.1713)AcarefreestylehasnofixeddirectionsByWangXizhiWangHsiChih.ThecharacterisSui(tofollow),incursivestyle.Themovementofthestrokessuggestsspeed,byadancingratherthanaracingspeed.AgracefullyexecutedworkAnexuberantworkfulloffeelingandvigor.FullpanelByWangXizhi Wang HsiChihLightingquickFullpanelByDongQichangTungChiChangCHINESEPAINTINGGeneral Characteristics of ChinesePaintingThecharacteristicsofChinesepaintingarecloselyboundupwiththenatureofthemedium.Thebasicmaterialisink,butChineseinkisawonderfulsubstance,capableofanimmenserangeandanextraordinary beauty of tone. Thepainter uses a pointedtipped brushmadeofha&rofgoat,deer,orwolfsetinashaftofbamboo.Hepaintsonalengthofsilkorasheetofpaper,thesurfaceofwhichisabsorbent,allowingno erasure or correction. Colour issometimes added to make the effectmoretruetolife,buttheinkdrawingremainsalmostalwaysthefoundationofthedesign.ColourisnotaformalelementinthedesignasinWesternart.Chinesepaintingsareusuallyintheform of hanging pictures or ofhorizontal scrolls, in both casesnormally kept rolled up. The latterpaintings, often of great length, areunrolled bit by bit and enjoyed as areaderenjoysreadingamanuscript.Asuccession of pictures is presented,thoughthecompositioniscontinuous.Thus, in the case of landscape, forwhich this form has been used withmostfelicity,oneseemstobeactuallypassingthroughthecountrydepicted.Chinesetechniqueadmitsnocorrection,and the artist must therefore knowbeforehand what he intends to do. Hecloselyobservesandstoreshisobservationsinhismemory.Heconceiveshisdesign,andhavingcompletedthementalimageofwhathe intends to paint, he transfers it swiftlyandwithsurestrokestothesilk.Itissaidthatinamastersworktheideaispresentevenwherethebrushhasnotpassed.This,however,demandsconfidence,speed,andamasteryoftechniqueacquiredonlybylongpractice.Inearlytimes,suchastheShangandZhoudynasties,Chinese paintings were made chiefly for sacrifices toHeavenandtothespiritsofclanancestors,whowerebelievedtoinfluencethelivingforgood.Chinesesocietyhas always laid great stress on the need for man tounderstandthepatternofnatureandtoliveinaccordancewith it. The world of nature was seen as the visiblemanifestation of the workings of the Great Ultimatethroughthegenerativeinteractionoftheyin-yangduaSism. As it developed, the purpose of Chinese painting turnedfrompropitiationandsacrificetotheexpressionofmansunderstanding of these forces through the painting oflandscape,bamboo,birdsandflowers.Thismightbecalledthemetaphysical,TaoistaspectofChinesepainting.Chinese painting also had social and moralfunctions. The earliest paintings referred to inancienttextsdepictedonthewallsofpalacesandancestralhallsbenevolentemperors,sages,virtuous ministers, loyal generals, and their eviloppositesasexamplesandwarningstotheliving.Portrait painting also had this moral function,depictingnotthefeaturesofthesubjectsomuchashischaracterandhisroleinsociety.Therefore,itissaidthatithadthesamemeritsaseachofThe Six Classics .ThiswastypicalConfucianfunctionofpaining.WhenweturntothesubjectmatterofChinesepainting, we see the early appearance oflandscape art and its actual predominance.Landscape is accounted the most important ofsubjects because it includes man and all livingthings;thewholeisgreaterthanthepart.Flowersarequiteasimportantasfigures.WhereinEuropethey have Christian themes, in China we haveBuddhistthemesandthestoriesofTaoistlegendandthefairytales.GenrepaintingisascommonasintheWest,thoughportraitureisperhapslesscommon.AmongthetypicalthemesofChineseartthereisnoplace for war, violence, the nude, death, ormartyrdom. Nor is inanimate matter ever paintedforitsownsake:theveryrocksandstreamsarefeltto be alive, visible manifestations of the invisibleforcesoftheuniverse.NothemewouldbeacceptedinChinesepaintingthatwasnotinspiring,noble,refreshingtotheChineseartistictraditionforanartof pure form divorced from content, and theChinesecannotconceiveofaworkofartofwhichthe form is beautiful while the subject matter isunedifying.Hence we can justly conclude thatChinesepaintingissymbolic,foreverythingthatispaintedreflectssomeaspectofatotalityofsymbolsofamorespecifickind.Bamboosuggeststhespiritof the scholar, which can be broken bycircumstance but never bent, and jadesymbolizespurityandindestructibility.Thedragonisthewhollybenevolentsymboloftheemperor;thecrane,oflonglife;thelilyto Christianity, a symbol of purity; theplum,whichblossomseveninthesnowandstands for constancy; and the pine tree,which represents the unconquerable spiritofoldage.Last but not least, Chinese painting isunseparably associated with literatureand other arts, such as poetry andcalligraphy.Thepainterscarefullyplacedsigniture, inscription (often a poem) andsealsareanintegralpartofthecomposition. Many of the painters werepoets; some, like Wang Wei(699759),equallydistinguishedinbotharts.ConsequentlyapaintermeansmoretotheChinesethantotheWesterners.HistoryofChinesePaintingThe earliest examples of Chinese paintingdatefromtheHanDynasty(202B.C.220A.D.)whenthewallsoftemplesandoftidalhallswereoftenpaintedwithmurals.Almost none of the early mural paintingssurvive,however,exceptforsomewithinthecavetemplesandonthewallsoftombchambers. Theirstyle is closely related tothesculpturedtombreliefsoftheperiod.Through the Tang Dynasty (618906),muralsandlargescreenswereprobablythepaintersmainformats.Anotherformat,thatof the scroll evolved concurrently ofChinesepainting.Theearliesttypeofscrollpainting was the horizontal handscroll.Thiswasalsotheearliestformofthebookin use before a folding format stitcheddownonsideinamannersimilartothewesternbookwasdevelopedintheSong(9601279).To view it, the handscroll is placed on atable and the viewer unrolls it, length bylength.SomehandscroUsextendmanyfeetinlength.DuringtheSongverticalscrollsintended for hanging on a wall alsobecamecommon.Scroll painting was traditionally producedfortheexclusiveintellectualelite.Manyoftheearlypaintersareknownbynamesincethey signed their works long before thispractice became customary in the west.Names of many other artists are knownfromtheirmentioninessaysonarttheory.Because thefaithfulcopyingofworksofreveredmasterswascommonlypracticedinChina, it is often possible to gain animpressionofanartistsstyleevenwhennooriginalpaintingssurvive.HanthroughFiveDynastiespriodFrom the Han period through the 8thcentury, the principal subject matter ofpaintingwasthedepictionofhumanfiguresasedifyingexemplarsofgood,characters.Amongtheearliestrecordedfigurepainters,muchprominencewasaccordedGuRaizing345406),towhomtheearliestsurvivingscroll painting has been attributed in hishandscroll, entitled Admonitions of the Instructress of the Ladies of the Palace.Theartistsbrushpointasfineasaneedlehas delineated his subjects with an acutepsychologicalsense.Thepeopleareembodied by their clothes, rather than bytheir flesh, and the floating draperies aresimilarinstyle to those of 6thcentury Buddhistsculpture.After the 8th century in addition topaintings of human figures, birds andflowers became popular subjects. Bambooandplumblossomsbecameanotherspecialcategories of painting, sanctioned by thestrongsymbolicvaluethattheseplantformsheldfortheliterateclass.SuDongpo(10371101) and his teacherWen Tong(10181079) were famousearlymastersofbambooart.Variousotherthemesappearedinpainting,butfromthe10th to the 20th centuries the subjecthonoured above all was landscape. ThetraditionoflandscapepaintinginChinaisinextricably bound with broad culturalvalues. Unlike the Mediterranean WorldChinahadnomythologyofanthropomorphicgods.Thebeliefsinaselfcreatinguniverseledrathertoamythologyof landscape itself. Mountains and waterswerethegrandestofallthecosmicimages,supportingeachinadynamicpolarity.SongandYuanperiodsThe concept that the microcosm of manparticipates in the macrocosm of thelandscape is reflected in the tradition ofmonumentallandscapepaintingthatflourishedduringtheNorthernSong(9601127). In the enormous hanging scrollBuddhist Temple in Autumn Mountains,attributed to the influential master LiCheng(919967), man is portrayed asbut one small element in the enormity ofnature. This theme underlies the styles ofFan Kuan, Guo Xi, and other greatlandscapepaintersofNorthernSong.The monumentality of Northern Songlandscape was later transformed by theartists of Southern Song court into poeticviews of nature of marvelous subtle ty.Thischangeresultedinpartfromthemoveof the Song capital from Kaifeng in theHenan Province of North China, toHangzhou, in Zhejiang, in the early 12thcentury.TheNorthernpaintershadworkedin a harder, clearer light. But among themarshesoftheYangtsedeltaSouthernSongAcademypainterssuchasXiaGuiandMaYuanpaintedscenesdepictingamoistclimate,wheremountainsfloatedelusivelyovermists,asinMaYuansevocativeBare Willow and Mountain in the Mist.AnotherschooloftheSongpaintingwasthatoftheChan(Zen)Buddhistmasterswhoproducedboldly outlined works of great simplicityandspontaneity. AnotableexampleistheSix Persimmons scroll, by the versatilemonkpainterMuXi.A concern with selfexpression that hadsurfaced in other arts during the Song,notablyinpoetryandcalligraphy,begantobe explored in the Yuan (12791368)throughthemediumoflandscapepainting.The pioneer in this development was thecalligrapherpainterZhaoMengfu(12541322),activeinthelate13thandearly14thcenturies. From this date the relationshipbetween calligraphy and painting becamecloser. Painters began to talk of writing apicture.Analreadyexistingpreferenceforpainting without colour, in ink alone,becamestronger. Inordertoexploitafullrangeofinktonalities,artistscametopreferexecutingpaintingsonpaperinsteadofonsilk,whichabsorbsinkmoreuniformly.IntheYuanDynasytheresultsweremainlyan increasing emphasis upon the actualprocess of painting and a readiness torecognize styles of individual artists as aformofhandwriting.OutstandingexponentsofthisnewapproachtopaintingwerethelandscapepaintersHuangGongwang(12691354),NiZan(13011374).WangMeng(13081385),andWuZhen(12801354), Acollectively known as the FourGreat Yuan Masters. The practice ofcombining painting with calligraphy in asingle composition also became morecommon.TheMingperiodIn the Ming Dynasty (13681644) theentire process of imagemaking becamemore calligraphic. Since painters hadalwaysusedabrushandinksimilartothecalligraphers, they had always tended tobuild their forms out of the basic brushstrokesusedinformingChineseCharacters.Now these tendencies were systematized,and the more representational values inpictorialartwereoftenrejectedinfavourofagreaterabstractionofform.SomeMingpainterssuchastheinfluentialmasterandart theorist Dong QichanglSSS1636),declared that ultimately calligraphy andpaintingweredoneinthesameDao(way).Ming artists believed that exemplars fromthe past could provide aesthetic standardsfor the present; as a result the styles ofmany past masters were kept active asoptions within the painters vocabulary.Innumerable works are signed as in themanner of some earlier artists. The WuSchool, an important school of MinglandscapepaintingfoundedbyShenZhou(14271509), was based on thesevalues.DongQichangshandscrollAutumn Mountainsis a transformation of twoearlier masterpieces, one by the 10thcenturyartistDongYuan,andonebytheYuanartistHuangGongwang.DongQichang turned principally to these twoexemplars in establishing an amateurtradition of painting called the SouthernSchoolthatgreatlyinfluencedthedevelopmentoflaterChinesepaintingandorthodoxartcriticism.Thisschoolreflected the values of the scholargentryelite,whopracticedartasapastimeratherthanasaprofession.Althoughtheyrecognized the roleoftechnique incalligraphy,Dong and other literati artists slighted theprofessional panters technical skill, andthe frequently decorative quality o hiswork. They associated these socalledprofessionalvaluesmainlywithtwogroupsofartists:thecourtAcademypaintersoftheSouthern Song period, such as Ma Yuan,andtheearlyMingpaintersoftheimperialcourtandofZhejiangProvince(collectivelyknownasZheSchoolpainters),suchasDaiJin(13881462)andhisfollowers.Fromabroaderviewpoint,however,theseprofessional painters represented the sameworld,usingthesametechniquesofbushandinkthatthescholarsdid.Notonlyaretheirpaintingsoftenofhighestquality,buttheyalsocontributedmuchtothestylesofthescholarswhetheracknowledgedornot.QingperiodtothepresentThefirstcenturyofQingrule(16441911)was the last period of great creativity intraditional Chinese painting. The orthodoxSouthernSchooltraditionofDongQichangculminatedinthestylesofthesocalledfourWangs(WangShimin(15921680),WangJian(15981677),WangHui(16321720) and Wang Yuanqi (16421715). The most gifted of these fourartists was Wang Yuanqi, whose powerfularchitectonicformshaveoftenbeencomparedtothoseoftheFrenchmodernistpainter Paul Cezanne. Another large andvaried group of artists, who are oftengroupedbythecitiestheymostfrequented,werelessconcernedwithbroadhistoricaldevelopments,andpursuedmoreindividualistic aims. The best known ofthese artists were Zhu Da (16121705),KunCan(ShiXi,16121693)andShiTao(YuanJi,16421718)whowasascionofthe Ming Royal house, who lived his artpartly as a protest against the Manchuconquest in 1644. Scholar artists of theQing period often tried to maintain a fiction that they never earned money fromtheirpaintings.Butinthe18thcentury,withpainterssucasJinNong16871764)andLuo Pin( 17331799) both classedamongtheEightEccentricsofYangzhou,thispretencewasabandonedasamerchantsocietyofvastlyincreasingwealthbecameanimportantpatron.The Jesuit painters introduced a newsynthetic SinoEuropean style which wasverypopularatcourt.UndertheirinfluenceLengMetandothercourtpaintersflutedwithperspectiveandotherwesterntechnicaldevices,thoughtheseleftnomorebeyondthe restricted circle. Indeed Wu Li(16321718),the only importantChinesepainter who became a Christianconvertshowednotahintofwesterninfluenceinhis landscape painting, which is in thetradition of pure Wenren Hua (Literatipainting). He, with the flowerpainterYttShouping(16331690)andthefourWangs all active under Emperor Kangxi(16621722), comprised the Six GreatMasters of the Qing. The four WangsembodiedintheirworkstheaestheticidealsofDoQichang,whosepupilWangShiminhadbeeneclectic,scholarly,avoidingcolourandthepicturesque.ThelandscapesrecalltheclarityofNiZanandShenZhou.Othergroups of painters, such as the EightEccentrics of Yangzhou and the EightMasters of Nanjing , also upheld, withvaryingdegreeofindividualism,theliterarytradition which found its most notableexpressioninalmostforbiddingpanoramasofGongXian(16181689)andthedry,fastidious landscapesof Hong Ren(16101663).MostQingpainters,however,fellvictimstoacautiousrefinementcharacteristicofanancientcultureatastandstill. The only notable exception tothistrendwerethethreegreatindividualists,ZhuDa,KunCanandShiTao.Thesemenlived a life of semiretirement; wholly orpartly under Buddhist inspiration andpaintingonlytopleasethemselvesandtheirintimatefriends,theydeliberatelyfloutedatconventions.ThebestmethodwroteShiTao, is that which has never been amethod. While Kun Can painted richtexturedlandscapesintheYuanspirit,ZhuDa and Shi Tao depicted more intimateaspectsofnaturewithastonishingspontaneity and freedom, generally on asmallscale.Theindividualistsfoundednoschool and represent the last significantdevelopmentinChinesepaintingbeforethe20thcentury.The tradition of scholarly painting whichflourished in the 17th and 18th centurieslost its impulse as the Qing Dynastydeclined. But in the 20th cenury, it hasundergonearevival,partlyasaresponsetotheWesternchallenge.LeadingfiguresinthisrevivalwereWuChangshuo(18441927 ), Qi Baishi (18631957), andHuang Binhong 18651955). With thefoundingofartschools,traditionaltechniques were taught along with theWestern. Now painting in the Chinesemediumhasceasedtobeapastimeonlyforthegentlemanandhasbeguntobeatrullypopularart.The teaching of Western painting beganshortlybeforethe19111912revolution.AftertheendofWorldWarImanyyoungmenwenttoEuropetostudyar,notablyLiu Haisu who founded the school whichlaterbecametheShanghaiAcademyofArt,and Xu Beihong( 18951953), whotaught in National Central University inNanjing and later became head of theAcademyofArtinBeijinginwhichhewassucceeded on his death by his pupil WuZuoren.Thesepaintersandtheirstudentsworked very skillfully in both oils andChinese ink; Xu Beihong, particularly,becamenotedforhisrealisticbrushstudiesofhorses.Meantime another school was founded inGuangzhou in 1917 by Gao Jianfu(18811951),dedicatedtodepictingmodernindustrialsociety,andevenwarfare, in the traditional medium. Boththis Guangzhou School and the WoodcutMovementinauguratedbyLuXunin1929were given official approvalis 1949 asreflectingsocialistrealismdemandedinartbythePeoplesRepublic.During the 1950s artists such as PangXunqinandLinFengmian,havingreturned from France, were beginning tocreateanewstylethatwasbothChineseinfeeling and in tune with the modeminternational movement. The outbreak ofthe Japanese War in 1937, however, cutshort this promising development. Asartists became refugees in the remotewesternprovincesandnationalismreplacedthemontpamasseastheirinspiration, their work becattteattiehmoreChineseintheme,andofteninstyleaswell.