Chapter EightChapter EightLanguage in UseLanguage in Use2021/6/71Introduction“You are a fool.”“You are such a genius.”“What do you mean?”SPEAKERS MEANING, UTTERANCE MEANING, CONTEXTUAL MEANINGDepends more on the contextPragmatics: The study of language in use2021/6/72Pragmatics is usually concerned with the meanings that sentences have in particular contexts in which they are used. There is a car coming .Seen out of context, it is a statement that a car is coming. But in a particular context it might be a warning to a pedestrian not to step onto a road, an expression of hope that people invited to a dinner are at last arriving, and so on. 2021/6/73Sentence Meaning Utterance MeaningIt is the abstract c o n t e x t -independent entity called s e m a n t i c proposition.I t i s c o n t e x t -dependent. It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of t h e s e n t e n c e .2021/6/74 Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication.2021/6/75Pragmatics is different from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation but in context.2021/6/761. Speech act theoryThe first major theory in the study of language in use.Originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin.How to Do Things with Words (1962)怎样用词做事2021/6/771.1 Performatives and constativesTwo types of sentences: performatives and constativesPerformatives: The utterance of a sentence is the doing of an action.它们的特点在于不只是言有所述，而且是言有所为。Performative verbs 施为动词： Constatives(表述句):a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. 2021/6/78Felicity conditions 合适条件There are conditions for performatives to meet to be appropriate or felicitous. Asutin suggested the following conditions:A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, (ii) The relevant participants and circumstance must be appropriate.B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.C. (i) The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, (ii) must follow it up with actions as specified.2021/6/79Example: the case of a ship-launching ceremony; the case of bequeathing ones watch; the case of bettingFeatures of typical performatives: Use first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice and performative verbs2021/6/7101.2 A theory of the illocutionary act 2021/6/711There are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something:1. Locutionary Act (发话行为)When we speak we move our cocal organs and produce a numberof sounds,organized in a certain way andwith a certain meaning.2. Illocutionary Act(行事行为): ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE(行事语力) is equivalent to speakers meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning(言外之意).2021/6/7123. Perlocutionary Act (取效行为) :a sense in which to say something can mean to do something concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer,whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker.By saying X and doing Y, I did Z.By saying “I will come tomorrow” and making a promise, I reassure my friends.2021/6/7132. Conversational 2. Conversational implicatureimplicature2021/6/7142.1 Principles of Conversation: The co-operative principle2021/6/715Cooperative principle(CP ):Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. 2021/6/7162.2 Violation of the maxims Examples of the violations of the maxims:1) Violation of the Maxim of QuantityA: What are you reading?B: A book.2)Violation of the Maxim of QualityA: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: Im afraid Im not feeling so well today. (said when it is known to both A and B that B is feeling perfectly well)2021/6/7173) Violation of the Maxim of RelevanceA: What time is it?B: Well, the papers already come.4) Violation of the Maxim of MannerA: Lets stop and get something to eat.B: Okay, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s.2021/6/7182.3 Characteristics of implicature1) Calculability 可推导性Implicatures can be worked out on the basis of some previous information.Hearers work out implicature based on conventional meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.2）Cancellability可取消性可取消性The presence of a conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the conventional meaning of words used, the CP, the linguistic and situational contexts. So if any of them changes, the implicature will also change.2021/6/7193) Non-detachability 不可分离性不可分离性A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Jack is an idiot. Jack is a genius.A: Shall we go the cinema tonight?B: Therell be an exam tomorrow. Ill take an exam tomorrow. Isnt there an exam tomorrow? 2021/6/7204) Non-conventionality It is context-dependent. It varies with context.Conclusion: Conversational implicature is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. 2021/6/7213. Relevance Theory 关联关联理论理论Relevance: Communication and Cognition(关联性：交际与认知关联性：交际与认知). They argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. 2021/6/722Two key notions in it:Ostensive communication(明示交际）明示交际） & presumption of optimal relevance（最佳关（最佳关联理论）联理论）1) Ostensive communication:Communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference. They maintain that inference has only to do with the hearer. From the speakers side, communication should be seen as an act of making clear ones intention to express something. A: Do you like rugby(橄榄球运动）?B: I am a New Zealander.2021/6/7232) Presumption of optimal relevanceThree definitions of relevance:1. An assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextual effect in the context. A: Come and have a drink this evening.B: Im afraid I have to go to a meeting.2021/6/724But relevance is a comparative concept. an extent-condition(程度条件) format:Extent condition 1: An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effects in this context are large.如果一个设想在一个语境中的语境效应大，那么这个设想在这个语境中就具有关联性。2021/6/725Extent condition 2: An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small.2021/6/7262. An assumption is relevant to an individual at a given time if and only if it is relevant in one or more of the contexts available to that individual at that time. 当且仅当一个设想在某一时刻，在某人可及的当且仅当一个设想在某一时刻，在某人可及的一种或多种语境中具有关联性时，这个设想才一种或多种语境中具有关联性时，这个设想才在当时与那个个体相关联。在当时与那个个体相关联。3. An assumption is relevant to an individual if and only if one or more of the assumptions it makes manifest is relevant to him. 当且仅当某个现象显映的一个或多个设想与某当且仅当某个现象显映的一个或多个设想与某个体相关时，这个现象才与该个体有关联。个体相关时，这个现象才与该个体有关联。2021/6/727Presumption of optimal relevance means:1. The set of assumptions I which the communicator intends to make manifest to the addressee is relevant enough to make it worth the addressees while to process the ostensive stimulus. 2. The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicate I. 2021/6/728The Q-and R-principleThe principle of least effort by Zipf. two competing forces in language use.The orce of unificationThe force of diversification The Q-and R-principle The Q- Principle content The R-principle form 2021/6/729The supports: Negation as implicature ts Synonym avoidance. The resolution of the conflict between them: The use of a marked expression when a corresponding unmarked alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message on which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed.2021/6/730The Q-,I- and M-principleDifference between maxim of Quantityand Relation maxim: the first one have to do with the quantity of information Relevance is a measure of timely helpfulness with respect to interactional goals2021/6/731I-principle do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Q-principle make your contribution as informative as is required,M-principle expression mimimization.2021/6/732The senantic minimization is equivalent to semantic generality. The expression minimization is some measure of surface length and complexity.2021/6/733Heuristics:Q-heuristic: what isnt said,isnt I-heuristic: what is simply described is stereotypically exemplified. M-heuristic: there is an implicit opposition or parasitic relationship between our second and third heuristics.2021/6/7342021/6/735部分资料从网络收集整理而来，供大家参考，感谢您的关注！