主讲教师 ： 阿里 Email: nhabbasigmail.comQQ：1182431334TEL: 18780311902参考书目o（1）当代当代认知心理学知心理学 梁宁建著梁宁建著 上海教上海教育出版社育出版社 2003o（2）认知心理学知心理学 黄希庭主黄希庭主译 中国中国轻工工业出版社出版社 2000第一章 绪论 (Chapter I: Introduction)o第一第一节 认知心理学的研究知心理学的研究对象象 (Research objectives of Cognitive Psychology)o第二第二节 认知心理学的知心理学的兴起及影响起及影响 (Impact & Rise of Cognitive Psychology)o第三第三节 认知心理学的方法知心理学的方法 (Cognitive Psychology Methods)o第四第四节 关于关于认知心理学的争知心理学的争论(DebateControversy about Cognitive Psychology)第一节 认知心理学的研究对象 (Research Objectives of Cognitive Psychology)o一、一、认知心理学研究什么知心理学研究什么 (Research Interests of Cognitive Psychology)o二、二、认知的知的过程与程与结构构 (Cognitive Process & Structure)o三、三、认知在心理系知在心理系统中的地位中的地位 (Status of Cognition in Psychological System)o四、四、认知模型知模型 (Cognitive Model)一、认知心理学研究什么(Research Interests of Cognitive Psychology)认知知是近几十年来由心理学家提出的一个描述人的是近几十年来由心理学家提出的一个描述人的认识能力的新概念，源于英文能力的新概念，源于英文cognition一一词，有广，有广义和狭和狭义之分。之分。(In recent decades different Cognitive Psychologist proposed the new concept of “Cognition“ defined as: a description of human reason. The word “Cognition” has the roots in English, which is used in both broad & narrow sense.(一一)什么是什么是认知知 (What is Cognition?)广广义的的“认知知”(GeneralBroad Cognition)狭狭义的的“认知知”(SpecificNarrow Cognition)1.广义的“认知”(GeneralBroader Cognition)n“认知知”：描述个体在：描述个体在认识方面的能力。方面的能力。Cognition: description of the individual in terms of understanding abilityn一方面，一方面，这个个词的含的含义比比较广泛，广泛，“认知知”认识和知和知识，它既包含了，它既包含了一种一种动态性的加工性的加工过程（程（认识），也包含了一种静），也包含了一种静态性的内容性的内容结构构(知知识); On the one hand, the meaning of the word more extensive, cognitive- understanding and knowledge, it contains both a dynamic process (knowing), also contains a static content structure (knowledge);n另一方面，另一方面，为了能将在学了能将在学术意意义上上进行行讨论的内容与在的内容与在较为通俗意通俗意义上上使用的名使用的名词（认识）区分开来。）区分开来。On the other hand, in order to be able to discuss the content and the meaning of the term in the academic sense, it is distinguished by using the noun (know)n采用采用“认知知”这一概念来指代和描述个体呈一概念来指代和描述个体呈动态或静或静态的各种的各种认识能力能力的。的。 The concept of “cognitive” is used to refer to and describe the dynamic or static cognition of an individual.o“认知知”具体是指那些能使主体具体是指那些能使主体获得知得知识和解决和解决问题的操作和能力。的操作和能力。认知是人知是人类个体内在心理活个体内在心理活动的的产物。物。虽然，我然，我们不能直接看到主体内在的不能直接看到主体内在的认知知过程，但可以通程，但可以通过观察、分析主体察、分析主体认知活知活动的外在行的外在行为来推断在其大来推断在其大脑内部内部进行的行的认知活知活动本身。本身。 The term Cognitive specifically refers to the operations and the ability to acquire knowledge and problem-solving. Cognition is a product of the individuals inner mental activity. Although we can not directly see the internal cognitive processes, but can observe and analyze the external factors to understand cognitive activity inside the brain itself 2. 狭义的“认知”(Narrow sense of Cognition)(二)认知心理学的研究对象o1.广广义： General Objectives n包括包括测量理量理论（最早的（最早的测量学派量学派认为认知能力是由各种知能力是由各种亚认知能力构成的）；知能力构成的）；Measurement theory: (the earliest school of thought thinks that cognitive ability is composed of all kinds of the cognitive ability).n皮皮亚杰的杰的发生生认识论（以生物、数理（以生物、数理逻辑为基基础，认为人的人的认知具有不同的性知具有不同的性质，处于不同的于不同的年年龄阶段的人的思段的人的思维有本有本质差异）；差异）；Piagets genetic epistemology: On the basis of biology, mathematical logic, thought the human cognitive have different properties, at different age stages of mans thinking have essential differencesn生生态学理学理论（Gibson提出，提出，认为心理学研究不心理学研究不应局限于局限于实验室内，更重要的是生室内，更重要的是生态学效度，即学效度，即在自然在自然环境、没有境、没有严格的条件控制下，能格的条件控制下，能够发生和生和实验室条件下相同的室条件下相同的结果就果就说明具有明具有较高的高的生生态学效度）；学效度）；Ecological theory: Gibson proposed that psychological research should not be restricted to the laboratory, ecological validity is important, that is, it can be performed in natural environment, without strictly controlled conditions. Same results can occur under laboratory conditions with high ecological validity.n信息加工理信息加工理论（即狭（即狭义的的认知心理学）。知心理学）。 Information processing theory (i.e. narrow cognitive psychology).o2.狭狭义：仅指信息加工理指信息加工理论。主要研究。主要研究对象包括：象包括：The narrow sense: only refers to the information processing theory. The main research object, including: n人如何人如何获取信息；取信息；How we obtain informationn这种信息怎种信息怎样表征，从而表征，从而转变为人人头脑中的知中的知识；How to characterize information, so that the knowledge can be incorporated into human mindn知知识怎怎样贮存，又是怎存，又是怎样用以指用以指导我我们的注意和行的注意和行为。How to store knowledge, and how to guide our attention & behavioro它涉及心理它涉及心理过程的全部范程的全部范围：从感：从感觉到知到知觉、模式、模式识别、注、注意、意、记忆和学和学习、思、思维、表象、表象、语言和情言和情绪等。等。 It involves the full extent of the psychological process: from the sense perception, pattern recognition, attention, memory and learning, thinking, representation, language and emotion, etc(二)认知心理学的研究对象讨论：认知心理学与普通心理学、实验心理学的区别和联系Discussion：Connection & Differences between cognitive psychology, general psychology and experimental Psychologyo普通心理学：描述心理和行普通心理学：描述心理和行为的基本的基本现象、象、规律和机制。律和机制。注重注重结果果 General Psychology: Describe the basic psychological and behavioral phenomena, laws and mechanisms. Results-orientedo实验心理学：通心理学：通过实验控制考察心理和行控制考察心理和行为发生、生、发展、展、变化的原因。化的原因。注重方法注重方法 Experimental Psychology: Conducts controlled psychological research to study the development and reasons of change in behavior Method-orientedo认知心理学：研究人知心理学：研究人类认知的内部知的内部结构与构与过程。程。注重注重过程程 Studies the internal structure and processes of human cognition. Process-oriented(三)认知心理学的实质 Essence of Cognitive Psychologyo1、对心理学的看法心理学的看法 Psychological Perspectiveso（1）心理学）心理学应当研究行当研究行为的内部机制（内的内部机制（内部心理活部心理活动）；）；Psychology should study the behavior of the internal mechanisms (internal mental activity);o（2）心理）心理过程可以理解程可以理解为信息的加工信息的加工过程；程；Mental processes can be understood as information processingo（3）能）能够建立心理建立心理过程的程的计算机模型算机模型 The psychological process can be established on a computer model(三)认知心理学的实质o2、认知心理学的实质、认知心理学的实质o 以认知活动本身的结构和过程为研究对象，把心理过以认知活动本身的结构和过程为研究对象，把心理过程看作信息加工的过程。程看作信息加工的过程。o认知研究与神经机制研究的关系：心理的认知过程不仅具认知研究与神经机制研究的关系：心理的认知过程不仅具有自然性特点，而且包括着复杂的社会性特点。认知研究有自然性特点，而且包括着复杂的社会性特点。认知研究实际高于生理机制水平的研究。实际高于生理机制水平的研究。o认知心理学与其它心理学的关系：由于认知心理学的核心认知心理学与其它心理学的关系：由于认知心理学的核心是提示认知过程的内部心理机制，即信息是如何获得、贮是提示认知过程的内部心理机制，即信息是如何获得、贮存、加工和使用的，因此，其它心理学的研究更多地表现存、加工和使用的，因此，其它心理学的研究更多地表现为对心理现象进行描述性研究，而认知心理学却力图以一为对心理现象进行描述性研究，而认知心理学却力图以一种解译性的研究来揭示人脑进行信息加工的特点。种解译性的研究来揭示人脑进行信息加工的特点。(三)认知心理学的实质o2, Subject matter of Cognitive PsychologyoCognitive activity itself structures and processes for the study, the mental process as the process of information processing.oStudy on the relationship between cognitive and neural mechanisms: cognitive psychology is not only limited to a process natural characteristic, but also the complex social characteristics. Physiological levels higher forms the basis of the actual mechanisms of cognitive research.oRelationship of Cognitive Psychology with other psychology: Since the core of cognitive psychology is to prompt the internal psychological mechanisms of cognitive processes, namely how the information is obtained, stored, processed and used, therefore, more descriptive studies in other psychology branches manifest a psychological phenomena for which cognitive psychology seeks an interpretation of studies to reveal the human brain information processing characteristics.(三)认知心理学的实质o3、认知心理学的研究成果知心理学的研究成果 The research achievements of cognitive psychologyo 记忆的三的三级加工模型、格式塔心理学研究加工模型、格式塔心理学研究知知觉、记忆等等 Level 3 processing model of memory, gestalt psychology is the study of perception, memory, etco4、认知心理学的基本任知心理学的基本任务（核心）是揭示（核心）是揭示认知知过程的内部心理机制，即信息是如何程的内部心理机制，即信息是如何获得、得、储存、加工和使用的。存、加工和使用的。The basic task of the cognitive psychology (core) is revealing the cognitive process of internal psychological mechanism, that is, how to obtain, store, process and use information.二、认知的过程与结构 The cognitive process and structureo(一一)认知知过程的含程的含义 Meaning of Cognitive Processo认知知过程是程是现代代认知心理学中一个非常重要的概念。知心理学中一个非常重要的概念。Cognitive process is a very important concept in the modern cognitive psychologyo过程兼有程兼有阶段段和和处理理两方面的含两方面的含义：不：不仅指指认知知经历着一系列的着一系列的阶段，前段，前一一阶段是后一段是后一阶段的前提，后一段的前提，后一阶段是前一段是前一阶段的段的继续和和发展；而且展；而且还指指在每一在每一阶段均能完成段均能完成对输入信息的某种特定的加工入信息的某种特定的加工处理。例如，人在思理。例如，人在思维的同的同时存在着抽象、概括、提出假存在着抽象、概括、提出假设等加工等加工处理活理活动。 There are two aspects of process, stage and management: It refers to the recognition through a series of stages, one stage after the other is provided, the latter stage is a continuation and development of the previous stage; but also refers to completion of each stage on a specific input of information processing. For example, At the same time there are abstract in thought, generalize, hypothesize etc.o认知是指感知是指感觉输入受到入受到转换、简约、加加储存、提取和使用的全部存、提取和使用的全部过程。程。（Neisser，1967）oCognition refers to switching the sensory input to contract, store, extract and use all of the process (Neisser, 1967)(二)强调认知过程有何意义 Meaning of emphasis on cognitive process讨论：强调认知过程的实践意义讨论：强调认知过程的实践意义(运用教学中的例子运用教学中的例子)Discussion: emphasis on the practical significance of cognitive process (using the example of teaching)o传统的教学受行的教学受行为主主义理理论的影响，是的影响，是以以结果果为中心中心的的教学，就是教学，就是说，教，教师比比较注意学生思考的注意学生思考的结果（答案），果（答案），而比而比较忽忽视思考的思考的过程和方法。程和方法。 Traditional teaching is influenced by behaviorism theory, based on the results-oriented teaching, that is to say, while comparing the learning, teachers make the students to think about (the answer), and as a result ignore the process and methods of thinkingo当代当代认知心理学知心理学认为，这种以种以结果果为中心的教学是低效中心的教学是低效的教学的教学, ,主主张以以过程程为中心中心的教学思想。的教学思想。 According to contemporary cognitive psychology, this results as the center of teaching is inefficient and claims that teaching thought should be process centered认知过程是影响学习效率的直接因素认知过程是影响学习效率的直接因素Cognitive processes are the direct factors affect the learning efficiency o行行为主主义学学习理理论认为，教，教师的教会直接影响学生的学，老的教会直接影响学生的学，老师教什么，教什么，学生就能学到什么；老学生就能学到什么；老师怎么教，学生就怎么学。怎么教，学生就怎么学。 Behavioristic theory of Learning proposes that, teachers method of teaching directly affects students learning, students will learn what the teachers teach. How the teacher teaches is how the students learn.o认知心理学知心理学则认为，教，教师的教，不能直接决定学生的学的教，不能直接决定学生的学习结果，而只能果，而只能间接地影响学生的学接地影响学生的学习结果。果。学生学生头脑中中认知活知活动才是决定学才是决定学习结果的果的直接因素直接因素，因此，因此，必必须以学生以学生头脑中的中的“认知知过程程”为中介来影响学生中介来影响学生的学的学习结果。果。 Cognitive psychology believes that teachers way of teaching, does not directly determine the student learning results, but only indirectly affect student learning outcomes. Students cognitive activities of the mind is decided by the direct factors to affect the results, therefore, teachers must take cognitive process in mind as intermediary to influence students learning results 一个心理学实验 A Psychological Experimento六六组实验 A series of Six Experiments 第一组实验 Experiment-Io下面将呈下面将呈现5个个汉字，有的字是用字，有的字是用行楷行楷字体写的，有的字是字体写的，有的字是用用仿宋仿宋字体写的。你的任字体写的。你的任务是迅速判断每个是迅速判断每个汉字的字体。字的字体。 Below you will be presented with five Chinese characters, some words are written in Xngki font, while others in Fngsng fonts. Your task is to quickly determine font type of every charactero请拿出一拿出一张纸和一支笔，如果呈和一支笔，如果呈现的的汉字是行楷字体，就字是行楷字体，就计为x；如果呈；如果呈现的的汉字是仿宋字体，就字是仿宋字体，就计为f。依次。依次记录，不，不必写序号。必写序号。 Please take out a piece of paper and a pen, if the Chinese character is presented in Xingkai font, mention it with x; If presented in Fngsng fonts, mention it with f. Just make a record in order, you dont have to write the serial numbero准准备好了好了吗？Ready?!预备开始剩叠凝熟锁第二组实验 Experiment-IIo下面将呈下面将呈现5个个汉字，你的任字，你的任务是迅速判断是迅速判断这些些汉字是字是不是与不是与“登登”字韵目相同。字韵目相同。 Below you will be shown five characters, your task is to quickly determine if these characters do or do not the share same rhyme with 登登 o请拿出一拿出一张纸和一支笔，如果呈和一支笔，如果呈现的的汉字与字与“登登”字韵字韵目相同，就目相同，就计为y；如果呈；如果呈现的的汉字与字与“登登”字韵目不字韵目不相同，就相同，就计为n。依次。依次记录，不必写序号。，不必写序号。Please take out a piece of paper and a pen, if presented character rhymes with 登登, write y; If the presented Chinese character does not rhyme with 登登, write n. Just record in order, you dont have to write the serial numbero准准备好了好了吗？Ready?!预备开始横缓慢垂窗第三组实验 Experiment IIIo下面将呈下面将呈现5个个汉字，你的任字，你的任务是迅速判断是迅速判断这些些汉字是字是生物生物还是非生物。是非生物。 Below you will be presented with five characters, your task is to quickly determine if these Chinese characters represent a living being or non-livingo请拿出一拿出一张纸和一支笔，如果呈和一支笔，如果呈现的的汉字是生物，就字是生物，就计为s；如果呈；如果呈现的的汉字是非生物，就字是非生物，就计为f。依次。依次记录，不必写序号。不必写序号。Please take out a piece of paper and a pen, if presented character belongs to a living being, write s; if otherwise (non-living), write f. Just record in order, you dont have to write the serial numbero准准备好了好了吗？Ready?!预备开始屈酥映彪图第四组实验 Experiment IVo下面将呈下面将呈现5个个汉字，你的任字，你的任务是迅速判断是迅速判断这些些汉字是字是不是与不是与“登登”字韵目相同。字韵目相同。 Below you will be shown five characters, your task is to quickly determine if these characters do or do not the share same rhyme with 登登 o请拿出一拿出一张纸和一支笔，如果呈和一支笔，如果呈现的的汉字与字与“登登”字韵字韵目相同，就目相同，就计为y；如果呈；如果呈现的的汉字与字与“登登”字韵目不字韵目不相同，就相同，就计为n。依次。依次记录，不必写序号。，不必写序号。Please take out a piece of paper and a pen, if presented character rhymes with 登登, write y; If the presented Chinese character does not rhyme with 登登, write n. Just record in order, you dont have to write the serial numbero准准备好了好了吗？Ready?!预备开始窃例雷恐第第五组实验 Experiment Vo下面将呈下面将呈现5个个汉字，有的字是用字，有的字是用行楷行楷字体写的，有的字字体写的，有的字是用是用仿宋仿宋字体写的。你的任字体写的。你的任务是迅速判断每个是迅速判断每个汉字的字体。字的字体。 Below you will be presented with five Chinese characters, some words are written in Xngki font, while others in Fngsng fonts. Your task is to quickly determine font type of every charactero请拿出一拿出一张纸和一支笔，如果呈和一支笔，如果呈现的的汉字是行楷字体，就字是行楷字体，就计为x；如果呈；如果呈现的的汉字是仿宋字体，就字是仿宋字体，就计为f。依次。依次记录，不必写序号。不必写序号。 Please take out a piece of paper and a pen, if the Chinese character is presented in Xingkai font, mention it with x; If presented in Fngsng fonts, mention it with f. Just make a record in order, you dont have to write the serial numbero准准备好了好了吗？Ready?!预备开始大疼正论单第六组实验 Experiment VIo下面将呈下面将呈现5个个汉字，你的任字，你的任务是迅速判断是迅速判断这些些汉字是生物字是生物还是非生物。是非生物。 Below you will be presented with five characters, your task is to quickly determine if these Chinese characters represent a living being or non-livingo请拿出一拿出一张纸和一支笔，如果呈和一支笔，如果呈现的的汉字是生物，就字是生物，就计为s；如果呈；如果呈现的的汉字是非生物，就字是非生物，就计为f。依次。依次记录，不必写，不必写序号。序号。Please take out a piece of paper and a pen, if presented character belongs to a living being, write s; if otherwise (non-living), write f. Just record in order, you dont have to write the serial numbero准准备好了好了吗？Ready?!预备开始击虫处鱼备判断完毕 Judgment completedo下面下面请你尽量将你尽量将刚才所呈才所呈现的的30个个汉字默字默写下来。写下来。oPlease try to write down the 30 Chinese characters you have just witnessed核对 Verifyo剩叠凝熟剩叠凝熟锁大疼正大疼正论单（形）（形）Shapeo横横缓慢垂窗窃例雷恐第（音）慢垂窗窃例雷恐第（音）Soundo屈酥映彪屈酥映彪图虫此虫此处鱼备（意）（意）Meaning关于记忆的实验关于记忆的实验 Regarding Memory experimento向大学生被向大学生被试者呈者呈现三三组单词，每，每组2020个，每个个，每个单词呈呈现一秒一秒钟。College student subjects were presented with three groups of words, each group of 20, each word appears a secondn呈呈现第一第一组单词时要求大学生注意要求大学生注意这些些单词是用大写字母是用大写字母还是是用小写字母拼写的；用小写字母拼写的；While presented with the first set of words, the students were asked to be attentive towards the words with uppercase or lowercase lettersn呈呈现第二第二组单词时要求被要求被试者考者考虑“它它们和和lemonlemon押韵押韵吗”； While presented with the second set of words, the students were asked to consider “whether the letters and lemon has any rhyme?;n呈呈现第三第三组单词时要求被要求被试者考者考虑“它它们是一种是一种动物物吗”。 While presented with the third set of words, the students were asked to consider if, they are a kind of animals?”关于记忆的实验关于记忆的实验 Regarding Memory experimento然后出其不意地然后出其不意地对被被试者者进行再行再认测验。结果：果：The results The results were not surprising. The Results are following:were not surprising. The Results are following:n第一第一组（形状加工（形状加工组）、第二）、第二组（语音加工音加工组）、第三）、第三组（语义加工加工组）的正确率分）的正确率分别为26%26%、46%46%、72%72%。The first group (the shape processing group), the second group (the voice processing group), and the third group (the semantic processing group) were correct on 26%, 46%, 72% respectively.o可可见：在感知：在感知语词时，由于，由于认知加工的深度不同（知加工的深度不同（认知知过程不同）程不同），学，学习和和记忆的效果也明的效果也明显不同，尽管其他条件都完全相同。不同，尽管其他条件都完全相同。 In the perception of words, the depth of cognitive processing is different (different cognitive process), therefore, although the other conditions are similar, the effect of learning and memory is significantly different.进一步的试验进一步的试验 Further experimentso实验改改变了两个条件：了两个条件：The experiment has changed the two conditions:n（1 1）事先告）事先告诉被被试者感知者感知2020个个词汇之后有一个之后有一个测验，以，以检验有有意注意意注意对学学习效果的影响。效果的影响。 Tell subjects in advance that they will be tested to verify voluntary attention on learning effect before presented with 20 words.n（2 2）把每个）把每个组的被的被试再分再分为三三组，事先分，事先分别告知每个告知每个组，每正，每正确再确再认一个一个词汇可得一、三或六美分的不同可得一、三或六美分的不同奖励，以考察不同激励，以考察不同激励水平励水平对学学习效果的影响效果的影响。Each group was divided into three groups, each group informed about the experiment in advance, were provided feedback on each correct answer, were given six to seven cents as a reward, To examine the influence of different incentive levels of learning o猜猜猜猜结果是什么？果是什么？Can you guess the results?结果 The Resultso三三类不同的加工方式所不同的加工方式所产生的学生的学习效果上的效果上的差异并未因差异并未因这两个条件的两个条件的变化而化而变化！化！Learning effect is not produced by three different ways of processing differences but due to the change of the two conditions!o原因何在？原因何在？What is the reason?结果 The Resultso原因在于：事先告知有原因在于：事先告知有测验（引起重（引起重视）和）和给以外部以外部奖励（增励（增强动机），机），只影响学只影响学习者注意不注意学者注意不注意学习材料材料，至于注意学至于注意学习材料的哪些方面，怎材料的哪些方面，怎样加工学加工学习材料，材料，则取决于取决于认知知过程。程。前前者只有通者只有通过后者起作用，后者才是决定学后者起作用，后者才是决定学习效果的直接因素。效果的直接因素。Reason Lies in: Prior notice (attention) and give external rewards (enhanced motivation), Only affect learners attention to do not pay attention to learning materials, as to what aspects of the learning materials is needs to be paid attention to, how to process learning material, all depend on the cognitive process. The former only works through the latter, latter has a directing factor to decide the study effect.o根据同根据同样道理，非智力因素、教材、教法、外部道理，非智力因素、教材、教法、外部奖励等等，都励等等，都只是影响学只是影响学习效果的效果的间接因素。接因素。 In a similar way, non-intellectual factors like: teaching material, teaching methods, external rewards and so on, are the indirect factors influencing the learning effect启示 UnderstandingMorale o关于加工水平的关于加工水平的实验结果告果告诉我我们，同，同样坐在教室里听老坐在教室里听老师讲课，同同样读一篇一篇课文，学生文，学生头脑中的加工水平是不同的，理解深度是中的加工水平是不同的，理解深度是不同的，学不同的，学习的的结果和效果自然也不同。果和效果自然也不同。The results tell us about the level of processing, even though the students sitting in the same classroom, listening to the same teacher, reading the same passage, their level of processing information to the brain is different, the depth of understanding is different, therefore, the result and effect of learning has different natureo如何促如何促进学生学生进行深水平的加工和有意行深水平的加工和有意义地地进行学行学习，而不是有，而不是有口无心（口无心（仅仅在在“认字字”，而不是在，而不是在读书，仅仅在在“听音听音”，而，而不是听不是听讲），），这是决定教学效果的一个重要因素。是决定教学效果的一个重要因素。How to promote students deep level of processing and meaningful learning, rather than idioms (used only in the literature and not in school, just listening rather than attending), this is an important factor of the teaching effect.认知过程与反馈效果 Cognitive Process & Feedback o考察学生学考察学生学习效果的最常用方法是效果的最常用方法是让学生听学生听讲之后独立完成作之后独立完成作业。The most commonly used method of examining student learning is to let the students listen carefully and do the homework independentlyo对于学生的作于学生的作业，老，老师最常用的方法是判断最常用的方法是判断对错并并标以以“”或或“”，这就是行就是行为主主义所所说的的“强化化”（认知心理学家称之知心理学家称之为“反反馈”）。）。这种种作法，是一种作法，是一种“结果中心果中心”的方法。的方法。For students work, teachers most commonly used method is to determine right from wrong and mark with or , which in behaviorism is called “reinforcement (cognitive psychologists call it feedback). This approach is results-centric approach.o实验证明，如果不考察明，如果不考察“过程程”，仅凭凭“结果果”很很难准确了解学生的学准确了解学生的学习状况，就不可能状况，就不可能给以恰当的以恰当的强化。化。Experiments have proved that if we do not review process, results alone are difficult to accurately understand the status of the students learning, it doesnt give proper reinforcement.关于阅读的实验 Experiments with ReadingoHoweHowe（19701970）让学生听一段学生听一段记叙文，一个星期以后叙文，一个星期以后进行行回回忆测验，测验后后让学生再听一遍原文，一个星期以后学生再听一遍原文，一个星期以后再再测验、听原文、听原文如此如此进行了四次行了四次阅读和和测验。 Howe (1970) carried out four tests of reading. He asked students to listen to a narrative, he called them after a week for a recall test, later asked them to listen to the original test again, and again after one week for recall and so on.o猜猜四次猜猜四次测验的的结果有什么特点？果有什么特点？ Can you guess what is the distinguishing feature of four test results关于阅读的实验 Experiments with Readingo结果令人吃惊：四次学果令人吃惊：四次学习的效果甚差，的效果甚差，2020个个记忆要点从第一次回要点从第一次回忆40%40%到最后的到最后的60%60%，而且四次回，而且四次回忆的信息十分相似。的信息十分相似。The results were surprising: Learning on the fourth time was poor. From first recall to the last there was drop of 20, 40% to 60% material loss, furthermore, recall of information on the four times is very similar. o这个个结果果说明了什么？明了什么？What does the results reveal?What does the results reveal?o这说明：在明：在练习和反和反馈中，中，教教师只告只告诉学生正确答案学生正确答案还不不够，必，必须要帮助他要帮助他们从从认知知过程上程上寻找找错误根源根源，反思自己的思路，学，反思自己的思路，学会有效的会有效的认知策略。知策略。They reveal that: In practice and feedback, the teacher telling the students about the correct answer was not enough, it only helped them find error source from the cognitive process, but they did not reflect on their own ideas, to learn effective cognitive strategies(三)人的信息加工的类型 How humans process informationo自下而上的加工与自上而下的加工自下而上的加工与自上而下的加工 Bottom-up and Top-down processingo系列加工与平行加工系列加工与平行加工 Serial Processing vs Parallel Processingo控制性加工与自控制性加工与自动化加工化加工 Controlled vs Independent Processing1、自下而上的加工与自上而下的加工Bottom-up and Top-down processingo自下而上的加工：自下而上的加工：对信息的加工信息的加工处理直接依理直接依赖于刺激的特性或外部于刺激的特性或外部输入的感入的感觉信息。信息。Bottom-up processing: processing of information directly depend on the stimulus or external input according to the features of sensory informationo自上而下的加工：人自上而下的加工：人脑对信息的加工依信息的加工依赖于于人的已有知人的已有知识结构。构。Top-down processing: the human brain information processing depends on the persons knowledge structure下图是什么？What is the picture below?下图中有几张人脸？How many Human faces can you find in the picture?问题解决中的自下而上加工和自上而下加工Problem solving in the bottom-up processing and top-down processing有一个有一个6464格的棋盘和格的棋盘和3232个多米诺骨牌，每个个多米诺骨牌，每个骨牌可盖住骨牌可盖住2 2格棋盘；如果切除棋盘左上角和格棋盘；如果切除棋盘左上角和右下角各一格，使棋盘只有右下角各一格，使棋盘只有6262格（如下图），格（如下图），能否用能否用3131个骨牌去覆盖这个残缺棋盘，为什个骨牌去覆盖这个残缺棋盘，为什么？么？ 无知觉线索的MC图形和有知觉线索的MC图形Unconscious and conscious clues of MC graphicsIf we have a 64 board and 32 dominoes, each domino can cover 2 boxes of the board; If we remove one box from upper left and one from lower right, leaving only 62 boxes (pictured), Is it possible to override the incomplete chessboard with 31 domino, why?o张庆林、肖崇好林、肖崇好. 顿悟与悟与问题表征的表征的转变. 心理学心理学报， 1996，28（1）:30-372、系列加工与平行加工2. Serial processing vs. Parallel processingo系列加工：人系列加工：人对输入的信息一个一个地依次入的信息一个一个地依次加以加以处理理 Serial Processing: People input (encode) information one by oneo平行加工：同平行加工：同时对所有所有输入的信息入的信息进行行处理。理。Parallel Processing: People simultaneously input (encode) all the information平行加工存在的例子 Example of Parallel Processingo人人对个个别字母的辨字母的辨认不如将字母放在一定的不如将字母放在一定的单词中中词优效效应（字（字优效效应）People dont attend to single letter, rather they attend to word this is called word superiority effecto人人对个个别线段的段的识别不如将不如将线段放在一个有段放在一个有结构的构的图形中形中图形形结构构优势效效应 While looking at a graph we dont focus on each line rather the whole picture or graph, this is known as the structural advantage effect3、控制性加工与自动化加工3. Controlled vs. Independent Processingo控制性加工：指各种要求意控制性加工：指各种要求意识努力的努力的认知活知活动。它是由注意来。它是由注意来发动，并由注意来，并由注意来维持的。持的。Controlled processing: Consciousness refers to various demands of cognitive activity. It both acquires and sustains the information. o自自动化加工：在没有注意的条件下，人所化加工：在没有注意的条件下，人所进行的信息加工活行的信息加工活动。这种加工不受人的目的种加工不受人的目的与意与意图控制。控制。Independent processing: under no strains, peoples information processing enters in a lot of dimensions. The persons doesnt have the control over the purpose and intention of information.(四)认知结构与知识的表征The cognitive structure and characterization of knowledgeo人的人的认知知结构有两种含构有两种含义：一是指：一是指认知包含哪些成分，知包含哪些成分，以及以及这些成分的相互关系；另一含些成分的相互关系；另一含义是人的知是人的知识在在头脑中是怎中是怎样表征的表征的。Peoples cognitive structure has two meanings: One means what components are involved in cognition, as well as the relationship between these components; the other is how the knowledge is presented in the mindo人的人的认知知结构即人的知构即人的知识的表征。的表征。 Peoples cognitive structure is the representation of human knowledgeo表征是表征是现代代认知心理学中另一个十分重要的概念。知心理学中另一个十分重要的概念。 Characterization is the another modern and very important concept in cognitive psychologyo什么是表征呢？什么是表征呢？What does characterization mean?1、什么是表征？1. What is Characterization? o表征是指某种表征是指某种东西的信号，它代表某种事物，并西的信号，它代表某种事物，并传递某种事物的信息。某种事物的信息。 Characterization refers to the signal of something, it stands for something, and works as a messageo表征包括内容和形式方面：表征的内容是指表征所表征包括内容和形式方面：表征的内容是指表征所传递的信息，而表征的形式指表征信息所使用的方的信息，而表征的形式指表征信息所使用的方法或工具。因此，同一事物可以表征法或工具。因此，同一事物可以表征为不同的形式。不同的形式。 Characterization includes the content and form: refers to the characterization of the content of the message, and refers to the form of property information used by the method or tool. Therefore, the same thing can be characterized as different formso表征的形式称表征的形式称为代代码，它可以是物理的、可，它可以是物理的、可观点点东西（如地西（如地图和照片），由此形成外部的表征；也可和照片），由此形成外部的表征；也可以是心理的、主以是心理的、主观的的东西（如表象）和代表事物共西（如表象）和代表事物共同属性的概念，由此构成内部的或心理的表征。同属性的概念，由此构成内部的或心理的表征。1、什么是表征？1. What is Characterization? o表征的形式称表征的形式称为代代码，它可以是物理的、可，它可以是物理的、可观点点东西（如地西（如地图和照片），由此形成外部的表征；也可和照片），由此形成外部的表征；也可以是心理的、主以是心理的、主观的的东西（如表象）和代表事物共西（如表象）和代表事物共同属性的概念，由此构成内部的或心理的表征。同属性的概念，由此构成内部的或心理的表征。 Characterization in the form is known as the code, it can be physical, helpful in viewing images (such as maps and photos), resulting in external representation; it can also be a psychological, subjective representation (such as) things on behalf of the concept of common attributes, which constitute the internal or psychological representation.o表征表征传递着事物的信息，但是不同表征着事物的信息，但是不同表征传递信息的效果是不同的。信息的效果是不同的。 Characterization can work as transmitting the information about things, but the effect of different characterization can be different if information is differentn杯子是用来喝水的杯子是用来喝水的 The cup is used for drinking watern杯子是用盛杯子是用盛东西的西的 The cup is made of thingsn创业需要需要资金金 Businessman needs moneyn创业需要人、需要人、场地、商品地、商品 Businessman need people, sites, commodity2、知识的表征 2. The characterization of knowledgeo陈述性知述性知识的表征：的表征：语词、表象、命、表象、命题Characterization of Declarative knowledge: phrases, presentation, prepositiono程序性知程序性知识的表征：用条件和的表征：用条件和动作来表征（作来表征（“如果如果那么那么”的的产生式或生式或产生式系生式系统）oCharacterization of procedural knowledge: Characterized by the use conditions and actions ( if. then. production or production system)