英语写作基础教程12Chapter I Using Proper WordsvI. Using words correctlyvII. Using words accurately3I. Using words correctly1.overcome ChinglishvEg:vIm not afraid of the hot weather. I dont mind the hot weather. I found the room rather cold. I felt the room rather cold. On Sundays I always sleep late. On Sundays I always get up late.4vThe blanket felt soft to her. She felt the blanket soft. His level of English has been proved. His English has improved. He came out the fourth in the exam. He received the fourth place in the exam. 52. Beware of archaisms, obsolete words, 2. Beware of archaisms, obsolete words, and newly-coined words and newly-coined wordsWords or meaning of words which are no longer in common used but occur in special text (e.g. Religious works) and poetry are called archaic. Eg: mayhaps (v.hope; adv.maybe), quoth (vt.say), thy (pron. your), ere (prep. before) Words or meaning which have gone out of use altogether are called obsolete. Eg: admirable废语令人惊奇的 fine n. 废语惩罚，处罚；为接受惩罚支付的钱 Newly-coined words Eg: junior-high-schooler, tube-steak, water-sensitive-crops, snow-poor-winter, 63.Avoid slang3.Avoid slangvOn hearing that his father had kicked the bucket, we wrote him a letter to express our deep sympathies.vThe big banquet held in honor of the distinguished state guests was really neat.v俚语呱呱叫的；了不起的，极好的 vUnexceptionable/ admirable/ excellent7II. Using words accurately words accuratelyvThe shade of meaningvEg1: eagle and hawkvEagle is a bird that soars high and thus see far. to have an eagle eye (to have excellent vision)vHawk is a bird of pray, symbolizes harshness, thus people call the hard line politician “the hawk”.vEg2: dumb and mutevHe is a dumb / mute man.81. Specific and concrete wordsvSpecific and generalA good man : kind / honest / just / generous / sympathetic / warm-hearted / selfless / honorableGood food: tasty / nourishing / rich / wholesome / high-priced / fresh / substantial9General: In spring, the weather in Beijing can be very bad.Specific: In spring, it is often windy and dusty here.More specific with the help of details:In spring, the wind blows all day long. The air is then filled with fine dust which sometimes shuts out the sun. There is no escape from the fine dust. It gets into your eyes, your ears, your nostrils, and your hair.102. Denotation and ConnotationvDenotation is the basic ,direct, literal meaning of a word. As defined by the dictionary.vConnotation is the association around and the overtone about the word. its the feeling or idea suggested by the word.11vE.g . 国家vCountry emphasizes the territory.vNation emphasizes the people.vState emphasizes political organization. vLand is often used to connote certain feeling.vAn island country ; neighboring countryvpeace-loving nation; the awaking nation of AfricavState-owned enterprisesvOur state system is the peoples democratic dictatorship.vA far-away / foreign land; a land of liberty/ opportunity12 Different connotation reflects the different Different connotation reflects the different attitude of the speaker.attitude of the speaker.Complimentary derogatory neutralPublic servant bureaucrat government employeeFinancier speculator investorLaw officer cop policemanCaptain of industry tycoon successful businessman Investigator spy detectiveCaptive jailbird prisoner133. SynonymsvSynonyms :Two or more forms with very closely related meaning, which are often but not always, intersubstitutable in a sentence.vAccording to formality:vEarly English: small/little ask time rise vFrench: petite question age mountvLatin: diminutive interrogate epoch ascendvGenerally, Latin words are more bookish than early English and French.14ExamplesExamples: :vThe concert concluded with a performance of Beethovens 5th symphony.vThey ended the concert with Beethovens 5th symphony. vMy father purchased a large automobile. vMy dad bought a big car.15Chapter II Making Correct and Effective SentencesI.Elements of a sentenceII. Requirements of a correct sentenceIII. Requirements of an effective sentence16I. Elements of a sentencev1. Completeness in structure;v2. Begin with a capital letter;v3. End with a full stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark;v4. Express a single complete idea.17II. Requirements of a correct sentencev1. completeness in structurev2. the right subjectv3. agreement between the subject and the predicate verbv4. agreement between pronoun and antecedentv5. clear pronoun referencev6. ending sentences with full stopsv7. joining clauses with conjunctionsv8. a main clause in a complex sentencev9. proper use of comparisonsv10.correct use of the tense18Correct the following sentences:vBecause he hadnt finish his assignment, so he continued working in the classroom. completeness in structurevNot knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him. the right subjectvA number of spelling mistakes was found in his composition. agreement between the subject and the predicate verbvEverybody should return the books he borrowed within a week. agreement between pronoun and antecedent19vShe told my sister that her idea was practicable. clear pronoun referencevNo one come to the party, it was a complete failure. ending sentences with full stops / joining clauses with conjunctionsvBecause he had not heard about that important decision. a main clause in a complex sentencevThe Sahara is larger than any desert in the world. proper use of comparisonsvWe have revised our work plan last night. correct use of the tenseCorrect the following sentences:20Fragment and EllipsevA fragment is a part of sentence (such as a phrase or dependant/ subordinate clause) which begins with a capital letter and ends as a sentence does. vE.g.vFragment The result being that he lost the presidential election. vSentence The result is that he lost the presidential election.21MAs exclamations Oh! Nonsense! Well done! What a day! How kind of you! Susan a singer!?MIn spoken English A: how about this? B: very good! A: Your name and your address, please? B: All right , here.v More Fragment-like sentences22MAs transitions And a final instance, To return from our digression, Now, a few more words about the meeting today.MM For emphasis and vividness For emphasis and vividness There is a price to pay for success. The There is a price to pay for success. The demanding price of self denial, the price of blood demanding price of self denial, the price of blood and sweat and tears.and sweat and tears.23III. Requirements of an effective sentence一一. Unity 一致性一致性vUnity: A sentence should express a single complete idea, no more, no less. If it contains too much, then the sentence becomes confusing . If it contains too little, then the idea in it is incomplete.vIn other words, a sentence violates the principle of unity if it contains ideas that are not closely related; whats more, a sentence is not unified if it does not express a complete thought.24 vEg:vIdeas not closely related: vBorn in a small town in South China in 1937, he grew up to be a great musician.vHe was born in a small town in South China in 1937, and grew up to be a great musician.vIdea incomplete: vDream of the Red Mansion is the best-known novel.v Dream of the Red Mansion is one of the best-known classical Chinese novel.251. Avoid chopped-up sentence1. Avoid chopped-up sentenceIn the following sentence, the idea of one unified sentence is chopped into several short sentences.E.g: My best friend in high school was our literature teacher. Her name was Wang Li. She taught us literature for three years.Revised: My best friend in high school was our literature teacher, Wang Li, who taught us for three years.262.Avoid Fused sentence: 2.Avoid Fused sentence: several ideas are fused into one sentence.several ideas are fused into one sentence.vFused: She suddenly paused and it seemed wonderful that she could speak so easily but she was usually bashful.Improved: She suddenly paused. It seemed wonderful that she could speak so easily, but she was usually bashful.vFused: They did not win the game so far as I could see they did not even try. Improved: They did not win the game. So far as I could see, they did not even try.27vCoherence requires that the parts of a sentence are so arranged that they stick together, and that the ideas progress in a logical sequence.v1. Parallelism vE.g: I forgot that my research paper was due on Tuesday and my teacher had said he would not accept late papers.二二. Coherence . Coherence 连贯性连贯性28vThe child was pretty and had brains. The child was pretty and intelligent.vHe sat down and was beginning to work. He sat down and began to work.vI will wait until you call or she comes. I will wait until you call or until she comes.vI went to the dance with a girl from Memphis and who has a southern accent. I went to the dance with a girl who is from Memphis and who has a southern accent.In parallel constructionIn parallel construction it is necessary to balance it is necessary to balance word for word, phrase with phrase, clause with word for word, phrase with phrase, clause with clause, sentence with sentence. It is sometimes clause, sentence with sentence. It is sometimes necessary to repeat the introductory word or phrase necessary to repeat the introductory word or phrase or clause.or clause.292. Consistency(1) keep the same grammatical subject unless there is good reason for changing. Eg: The cast first discusses the play and then nightly rehearsals begin.The cast first discusses the play and then begin nightly rehearsals.(2) Keep the person of pronoun consistent. Eg: Having eaten our lunch, they departed by boat.Having eaten their lunch, they departed by boat.30(3) Keep the number of nouns and pronouns consistent Eg: Being a student, we all wish to learn to write well. One can never write effectively, unless they write as much and as often as they can.(4) Keep the mood and the voice that you have decided upon. Eg: First build a fire and then you should make the coffee. He drove the car into the garage and the motor was quickly stopped.313. Subordination Correct subordination clarifies the relationships between ideas, thus strengthens the coherence of a sentence.Subordination also leads to greater economy in writing, permitting one to express oneself in the fewest possible words.32It can be achieved by turning the other clause into:It can be achieved by turning the other clause into:(1)an adverbial clause (1)an adverbial clause (2) an adjective clause (2) an adjective clause (3) a present participial phrase(3) a present participial phrase(4) a past participial phrase(4) a past participial phrase(5) an appositive(5) an appositiveEg: A. I was in college. I had a roommate. He was studying to be a lawyer.B. I ran out of ink, thus being unable to finish my theme.C. The dean issued a bulletin, and it said the library would remain open on weekends.33三. Conciseness 简洁性1. No wordinessnWordiness also violates the principle of unity, the idea gets blurred by unnecessary words which obscure it like clouds and smoke. nSorry, Im not in a position to offer assistance to him.Sorry, I am unable to help him.nThe maid put the letter that came from Prague on my desk.The maid put the letter from Prague on my desk.nThere are several advantages to buying a motorbike.Buying a motorbike offers several advantages .nId like to take the opportunity to say thank you.Thank you.342. Clarity 2. Clarity Clarity requires that a sentence should be written with its meaning unmistakably clear.Misunderstanding is often caused by the position of modifiers：The meaning of a sentence can be changed drastically by changes in the position of modifiers.Eg： I I reallyreally dont mind waiting. dont mind waiting. I dont I dont reallyreally mind waiting. mind waiting. In one word, the modifier must be placed as near to the modified as possible.35四. Emphasis Emphasis 强调性强调性Emphasis is the means by which you give desired force to your writing.1. positioning for emphasisThe sentence end-the place of strongest emphasisThe sentence beginning-the place of secondary emphasisThe middle - the place of least emphasisE.g.He will not have the endurance needed for the long training required to be a dentist, I think.Attention: move the point to be emphasized, out of order, to the front, this process is often called fronting or inversion. E.g: This I will never do.362. use of the appropriate voice for verbs2. use of the appropriate voice for verbsvIn general the active voice is preferable because it is more direct and precise, but sometimes the passive is more appropriate than the active.vE.g.vThe advice which was given to me by you will be followed by me.vTelevision was watched by the whole family in the evenings.vPassive voice is preferable:vwhen the receiver of an action is more important than the doer.vwhen the doer is vague or unknown.vwhen the doer is to be especially emphasized.373. Climactic order3. Climactic ordervClimacte order is the order that goes from the least important to the most important or that goes from the general to the specific.vShe was a kind-hearted, goodlooking, and well-mannered lady.vRevised: She was goodlooking, well-mannered and kind-hearted.vHe said he had lost interest in life, fame, position and money after that tragedy.vRevised: He said after that tragedy he had lost interest in vNote:vThe opposite of climatic order results in anticlimax. it is often used deliberately for humorous effects.vE.g. At one fell swoop, he lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his dog.384. Rhetorical questionvA rhetorical question differs from an ordinary question in that it does not need an answer, it is used for emphasis.vThe rhetorical question is often reserved for special occasion to exert its great force. A positive rhetorical question is like a strong negative statement, while a negative rhetorical question is like a strong positive statement.vE.g.vIf winter comes, can spring be far behind?vIsnt it beautiful weather?395.The balanced sentence5.The balanced sentencevThe balanced sentence, by positioning together two or more parallel items, makes for poignancy and emphasis.vE.g.vReading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. -Francis Bacon: “Of Studies”406. Periodic sentences6. Periodic sentencesvA periodic sentence is one that is not complete in structure or meaning until it reaches the last word, which is the most important word of the sentence.Eg: It is generally acknowledged that the sole criterion of truth is practice. He said for buying a house he had prepared everything but money.41Chapter 3 Developing ParagraphsI. General Introduction to Paragraph:1.In form: set off by indentation or spacing2. In content: closely-related sentences42II. Typical structure of paragraphTopic Sentence Supporting DetailsClosing Sentence43Topic sentencevWhat is the topic sentence? The topic sentence is the first sentence in a paragraph. vWhat does it do? It introduces the main idea of the paragraph. vHow do I write one? Summarize the main idea of your paragraph. Indicate to the reader what your paragraph will be about. 44Supporting sentencesvWhat are supporting sentences? They come after the topic sentence, making up the body of a paragraph. vWhat do they do? They give details to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph. vHow do I write them? You should give supporting facts, details, and examples. 45Closing sentencevWhat is the closing sentence? The closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph. vWhat does it do? It restates the main idea of your paragraph. vHow do I write one? Restate the main idea of the paragraph using different words. 46Example There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canadas cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live. 47III. Requirements for paragraph writing1.Unity(1)Singleness of purpose(2)Fullness(3)Brevity(4)Topic sentence48Requirements for paragraph writing2. Coherence(1) Ways of developing paragraph(2) Transition49Ways of developing paragraph Definition Paragraph Classification Paragraph Description Paragraph Compare and Contrast Paragraph Sequence Paragraph Choice Paragraph Explanation Paragraph Evaluation Paragraph50Requirements for paragraph writing3.Emphasis(1)Proportion(2)Position(3)Climatic order(4)Repetition and parallelism51Chapter 5 SummarizingA summary is a brief , concise restatement of the main facts or points of a passage or a book.It is different from a composition in that it does not express the writers but someone elses ideas.52Requirements for summary writingvgenerally a summary should not be longer than a third of the length of the original passage.vit should be faithful to the original, with no change in facts or views, and no important points left out.vit should be written in continuous prose, not in the form of an outline.53Procedures vreadingvwritingvomitting the detailsvreducing the examplesvsimplifying the descriptionsveliminating all repetitionvmaking phrases do the work of clauses or sentencesvusing general words instead of specific wordsvusing the shortest possible transitionsvavoiding figurative languagevrevision54Chapter 6 Essay WritingI. Basic OrganizationvIntroduction (beginning)vBody (middle)vConclusion (end)55Introduction ParagraphWhat is an introduction paragraph?What does it do?How do I write one? E.g. Hockey has been a part of life in Canada for over 120 years. It has evolvedinto an extremely popular sport watched and played by millions of Canadians.The game has gone through several changes since hockey was first played inCanada.56Supporting ParagraphsvWhat are supporting paragraphs? Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay vWhat do they do? They develop the main idea of your essay. vHow do I write them? 1. List the points that develop the main idea of your essay.2. Place each supporting point in its own paragraph.3. Develop each supporting point with facts, details, and examples.57Summary ParagraphvWhat is a summary paragraph?vWhat does it do? vHow do I write one?Example: vOverall, the changes that occurred in hockey have helped to improve the game. Hockey is faster and more exciting as a result of changes in the past 120 years. For these reasons, modern hockey is a better game than hockey in the 1890s. 58II. Steps Essay writingvPrewriting EssaysvWriting Essays vEditing Essays vPublishing Essays 59III. Types of outlinesvA topic outline uses words or phrases for all entries and uses no punctuation after entries.vAdvantages: presents a brief overview of work and is generally easier and faster to write than a sentence outline.vA sentence outline uses complete sentences for all entries and uses correct punctuation.vAdvantages: presents a more detailed overview of work including possible topic sentences and is easier and faster for writing the final paper.60IV. Types of Writing61Narration1. What is narration?The method of development in which the writer tells a story to support a point. Narrative writing tells a story. In essays the narrative writing could also be considered reflection or an exploration of the authors values told as a story. The author may remember his or her past, or a memorable person or event from that past, or even observe the present.622Essential Featuresv Context-the writer makes clear what happened, when, where, and to whomv Point of view-the writer takes a consistent point of view in relation to the action, writing either as a participant (first person - using I) or as a spectator (third person - using he, she, it, they).v Selection of detail-the writer focuses only on the actions and details that further the story and promote the point, minimizing or eliminating others.v Organization-the writer organizes the events of the story in a chronological order using time transitions.vPurposetheres a reason for telling the story. One way to find it is to complete the statement, The moral of the story is.63Chapter 7 Writing for Practical Purposes64NoticesContemporary British TheatreSpeaker: Prof. Bernard HollandProfessor of English Literature, Cambridge UniversityAuthor of The Experimental TheatreDate: Monday, 6 OctoberTime: 10 a.m.Place: Rm.201All Welcome65Notes of introduction2 Feb.2006Dear Mr. Smith, This is to introduce Mr. Ma Ming. He isa graduate student in linguistics at our university. Mr. Ma is looking for a teaching assistants post. Any assistance rendered him would be highlyappreciated. Jane 66Thank-you Notes 28 July,2005Dear Pam & Sam, Im writing to thank you for the lovely dinner yesterday. We enjoyed the evening greatly. It was most kind of you to introduce some new friends to us. We loved to meet those interesting people. Please accept our warmest thanks. Cathy67Notes of invitation 20March,2005 Dear Helen, We are going to have an English evening in our classroom this coming Saturday. The time is 7:00pm. Would it be possible for you to join us? We would be very happy if you could be with us. Drop me a line if you are interested. Yours, Jianhua68Notes of Appointment 15 May,20_ Dear Sydney, Id like to discuss with you about our new project. Could we meet for about an hour at the Coopers on Monday afternoon at 3 oclock? If you are otherwise engaged, please ring me to make another time. Thank you. Paul69Notes of Congratulation August 8,20_ Dear Rosemary, The news of your music scholarship to the University made my day. No one could have been more deserving. How exciting it must be for to realize your dream after all those years of faithful practice and proficient performance. Your diligence combined with your innate talents indicates a dynamic future. I wish you all the best in your college years. Kate70Notes of Apologies 4 October,20_ Dear Betty, Im terribly sorry I failed to meet you in your office yesterday afternoon. One of my friends got injured in a car accident, so I had to send him to hospital and looked after him all night. I should have called to tell you, but I was rather busy then. Do please forgive me. Peter John71Chapter7 Manuscript Form and PunctuationChapter7 Manuscript Form and PunctuationvA.L. is the son of Mrs. R.W. and a high school graduate.vWhen the burglar was arrested, he had several Mercedes, a yacht and $250,000 in cash stashed under his mistress.72I. Punctuating Compound Sentences1.A comma is used in a compound sentence of which the clause are joined by a conjunction.-He bought a red evening dress, and he gave it to his wife for her birthday.73I. Punctuating Compound Sentences2. Use a semicolon before independent clauses.(1) when they are not joined by the coordinating conjunction such as “as, and, but, for, or, nor”.-Smoking is dangerous in the woods; it may result in a fire.(2) When they are joined by such connectives as:“for example, nevertheless, otherwise, that is, besides, therefore, accordingly, however, also, consequently, hence, still, stead, thus”. The section after the semicolon expresses ideas which a stage further the thought in the proceeding section.-I waited for him; therefore, I saved him a seat.(3)when there are commas within the clauses, that is, when the clauses are internally punctuated by commas.-The travel agency, the first one to open in our city, offered special tours at reduced rates to any city within the province, and some cities in neighboring provinces to newly weds, and groups organized by peasants associations and workers unions; and within three weeks over 1,000 people bought tickets.74I. Punctuating Compound Sentences3. Use a semicolon or a colon between impendent clauses when the second clause explain or restates the idea in the first.-Exposure to the sun will not cause these drape to fade: they are made of a color-fast synthetic material.4. when a compound sentence is very short, a comma before the conjunction is not essential.-The thunder roared and the lightning flashed.75II. Punctuating Series1.place a comma after each item in a series except the last one.-They sent books for son, records for the daughter, and a set of dishes for parents.2.If all of the items in a series are connected by “and” or“or”, do not use commas.-They telephoned Ruth and Alice and Jane.3. Do not use a comma before the final adjective in a series if the adj, is thought of as part of the noun.-It was a hot , humid, bright August day.